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THE 



PMCTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



% ^anh-Jiook of Practical ffiluestions, 

SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED UPON SUBJECTS COMPRISING THE PRIN- 
CIPAL BRANCHES TAUGHT IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS, WITH 
ANSWERS CAREFULLY SELECTED FROM STANDARD TEXT- 
BOOKS AND OTHER RECENT AUTHORITIES ; ALSO 
CONTAINING PRACTICAL AND COMPREHENSIVE 
ANSWERS TO OVER ONE HUNDRED IM- 
PORTANT QUESTIONS ON THE SUB- 
JECT OF PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 



SIX THOUSAND QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 



PREPARED FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS, STUDENTS, SUPER- 
INTENDENTS, AND SCHOOL COMMISSIONERS. IN EXAMI- 
NATIONS AND REVIEWS, AND ALSO AS A REFERENCE 
BOOK FOR GENERAL INFORMATION, AND AS 
A SUPPLEMENT TO TEXT-BOOKS IN THE 
CLASS-ROOM. 



LAMONT STILWELL. 




BOSTON AND NEW YORK: 
THE EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

1887. 






e>^ 



Entered According to Act op Congress, in the Year 1887, 

Bv W. D. KEKR, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



Press of J. J. Little & Co. 
Astor Place, New York. 



PREFACE. 



In presenting to teachers, students, and the public, a new 
Question Book, the author would call attention to the following 
characteristics of the work as his apology for so doing : 

(1.) Many of the question books which have already been pre- 
pared are simply sets of test questions, put together with little 
effort at systematic arrangement, with brief answers, in the 
language and on the authority of the author. They serve fairly 
well the limited purpose for which they were written, namely, 
to be used as a test for knowledge acquired from other sources. 
The arrangement of matter and the brevity of the answers make 
these books unsatisfactory helps in the effort of acquiring more 
than the superficial knowledge of the branches of which they 
treat. This book is intended to serve equally well as an aid for 
examinations and reviews, and at the same time to be a source of 
scholarly information, because — (1) its arrangement is systematic 
and logical ; (2) the number of questions is sufficiently great to 
include the important and difficult points in each subject ; (3) the 
answers are of sufficient length, and being quoted from standard 
authorities, are entitled to the distinction of being scholarly, 

(2.) A book which contains the best definitions and classifica- 
tions that can be selected from nearly all the leading authorities 
cannot but be a valuable supplement to other text-books used in 
the class-room. Many of the good features of all text-books are 
thus suggested to the teacher ; and as the name of the book and 
the number of the page in all cases accompanies the matter 
quoted, there is an opportunity for farther reference if desirable. 
The use of such a book in the class-room, and the opportunity 
which it affords for comparing the definitions and opinions of 
different authors, will help to make pupils independent of any 
text-book, with opinions of their own, or able to quote their 
authority when their opinions are called into question. 



4 PREFACE. 

(3.) In this book answers have been quoted from nearly three 
hundred text-books, and many more have been consulted. The 
aim has been to select only from the best, and where standard 
books have differed widely, two or more answers have been given 
to the same question. In the use of such a book, the teacher 
is introduced to the latest and best authorities on the various 
branches he is required to teach. He learns to investigate and 
to compare merits, and at the same time secures the benefits of an 
extensive acquaintance with a wide range of reference books on 
those subjects. 

(4.) The fact that these questions are systematically arranged, 
that they include the vital points in each of the branches treated, 
and that they have been selected only from standard authorities, 
makes such a book valuable to all as a work of reference and as a 
hand-book of general information, worthy a place in the library 
or on the famUy book-shelf. 

(5.) As a work for teachers, no little importance is attached to 
the chapter on Practical Pedagogy. The aim of its preparation 
has been to ask such questions as will bring out in their answers 
the relations between Psychology and Pedagogy, and to emphasize 
those principles of Psychology which should be applied in the 
theory and practice of teaching. The additional questions on 
School Management are intended to discover the practice and to 
show the principle which underlie the best modern methods. 
The arrangement of these questions has been carefully studied, 
and answers have been selected only from unquestionable au- 
thorities. This chapter is intended to be of special benefit to the 
great mass of teachers who have begun the work of teaching 
without special training in these sciences. 

(6.) Inasmuch as it contains nothing original, the compiler 
should not be censured for egotism in thus introducing the Prac- 
tical Question Booh. He could do no less in justice to the valuable 
works from which its matter has been selected, and on the merits 
of which he rests its claim to attention. 

September 1, 1887. 



PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 



In preparing this book, quotations have been made from the 
following works. For the purpose of making due acknowledg- 
ment to the authors and publishers, and for the benefit of any 
who may desire to purchase or consult them, we give below the 
names of these books and the addresses of their publishers : 

History : Swinton's Outlines of the World's History, also Swin- 
ton's Condensed United States History ; published by Ivison, Blake- 
man, Taylor & Co. , New York. Berard's United States History ; 
published by Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. Britannica Cy- 
clopaedia ; published by A. & C. Black, Edinburgh, Scotland. 
Barnes' Brief History of the United States ; published by A. S. 
Barnes & Co., New York. Lossing's Common School History of 
the United States ; published by Sheldon & Company, New York. 
Ridpath's History of the United States ; published by Van Ant- 
werp, Bragg & Co. , Cincinnati. American Cyclopsedia ; published 
by D. Appleton & Co., New York. Eclectic History of the United 
States; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati. 
Scudder's History of the United States ; published by J. H. But- 
ler, Philadelphia. Anderson's General History, Anderson's Pic- 
torial History of the United States, Anderson's Grammar School 
History of the United States, and Anderson's Junior Class History 
of the United States ; published by Clark & Maynard, New York. 
Seavey's Goodrich's History of the United States, and Campbell's 
Concise History of United States ; published by Taintor Brothers 
& Co., New York. Henry's School History of the United States ; 
published by J. E. Sherrill, Danville, Ind. Harper's History of 
the United States ; published by Harper & Brothers, New York. 
Taylor's Model School History of the United States ; published 
by George Sherwood & Co., Chicago. Quackenbos' History of the 



6 PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 

United States ; published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
Kertiey's History of the United States ; published by Kelley & 
Piet, Baltimore, Md. Venable's United States History ; published 
by Van Antwerp, Bragg k Co., Cincinnati. Gilman's General 
History ; published by Hurd & Houghton, New York. 

Geography : Eclectic Complete Geography ; published by Van 
Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati. Guyot's Physical Geography; 
published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. Lock- 
yer's Elements of Astronomy ; published by D, Appleton & Co., 
New York. Warren's Physical Geography ; published by Cow- 
perthwait & Co. , Philadelphia. Maury's Physical Geography ; 
published by University Publishing Company, New York and Bal- 
timore. Dana's Manual of Geology ; published by Ivison, Blake- 
man, Taylor & Co., New York. Maury's Manual of Geography; 
published by University Publishing Company, New York. Wells's 
Natural Philosophy ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & 
Co., New York. Shaler's First Book in Geology; published by 
Ginn & Co., Boston. Houston's Physical Geography; published 
by Eldredge & Brother, Philadelphia. Science Primer, Physical 
Geography, by Geike, Appleton's Physical Geography, Cornell's 
Physical Geography ; published by D. Appleton & Co., New 
York. Swinton's Grammar School Geography ; published by 
Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. Harper's School 
Geogi-aphy; published by Harper & Brothers, New York. Swin- 
ton's Complete School Geography; published by Ivison, Blake- 
man, Taylor & Co., New York. Steele's Fourteen Weeks in 
Astronomy ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. War- 
ren's Brief Course in Geography ; published by Cowperthwait & 
Co., Philadelphia. Monteith's Comprehensive Geography; pub- 
lished by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. 

Arithmetic : Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. Stoddard's 
Complete Arithmetic ; published by Sheldon & Co., New York. 
American Cyclopaesdia ; published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
Robinson's Series : Progressive Higher Arithmetic, The Complete 
Arithmetic, Junior Class Arithmetic, by Daniel W. Pish, A. M., 
and Fish's Arithmetic, Number Two ; published by Ivison, Blake- 
man, Taylor & Co., New York. Mac Vicar's Practical Arithmetic; 
published by Taintor Brothers & Co., New York. The Complete 
Arithmetic, by Benjamin Greenleaf, A. M. ; published by Leach, 
Shewell & Sanborn, Boston and New York. Olney's Practical 
Arithmetic; published by Sheldon & Co., New York. Thomson's 



PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 7 

Practical Arithmetic ; published by Clark & Maynard, New York. 
Hagar's Common School Arithmetic ; published by Cowperthwait 
& Co., Philadelphia. Brooks' Philosophy of Arithmetic, and New- 
Normal Arithmetic ; published by Sower, Potts & Co., Philadel- 
phia. Saudford's Common School Analytical Arithmetic ; pub- 
lished by J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. White's New 
Complete Arithmetic, Milne's Practical Arithmetic ; published by 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. , Cincinnati. Raub's Complete Arith- 
metic ; published by Porter & Coates, Philadelphia. Quackenbos' 
Higher Arithmetic ; published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
Practical Arithmetic, by G. A. Wentworth, A. M., and Rev. 
Thomas B, Hill, D. D., LL. D.; published by Ginn & Co., Bos- 
ton. The Complete Algebra, by Joseph Ficklin, Ph. D. ; pub- 
lished by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. 

Grammar: Higher Lessons in English, Reed and Kellogg ; pub- 
lished by Clark & Maynard, New York. Fowler's. English Gram- 
mar, New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, and Swinton's Progress- 
ive English Grammar ; published by Harper & Brothers, New 
York. Raub's Practical English Grammar ; published by Porter 
& Coates, Philadelphia. Greene's English Grammar and Greene's 
Analysis ; published by Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. Ana- 
lytical and Practical English Grammar, Revised, Bullions ; pub- 
lished by Sheldon & Co. , New York. Kerl's Comprehensive Eng- 
lish Grammar ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New 
York. Brown's English Grammar, with Analysis, and Brown's 
English Grammar, Revised ; published by William Wood & Co., 
New York. Harvey's English Grammar and Holbrook's Complete 
English Grammar ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cin- 
cinnati. Bingham's Grammar of the English Language ; pub- 
lished by J. H. Butler & Co. , Philadelphia. Clark's Normal Gram- 
mar ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. Hart's Eng- 
lish Grammar and Analysis ; published by Eldredge and Brother, 
Philadelphia. English Grammar, Lee & Hadley ; published by 
Taintor Brothers & Co., New York. Bottwood's English Gram- 
mar ; published by George Sherwood & Co., Chicago. Quacken- 
bos' English Grammar ; published by D. Appleton & Co., New 
York. Rhetorical Grammar of the English Language, Crittenden ; 
published by J. M. Bradstreet & Son, New York. 

Orthography : Analytical Orthography, by Albert Wright, 
A. M. ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. Greene's 
English Grammar ; published by Cowperthwait & Co., Philadel- 



8 PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 

phia. Harvey's English Grammar; published by Van Antwerp, 
Bragg & Co., Cincinnati. Bullions' Analytical and Practical 
English Grammar ; published by Sheldon & Co. , New York. 
Rhetorical Grammar of the English Language, by D. H. Critten- 
den, A. M, ; published by J. M. Bradstreet & Son, New York. 
Brown's English Grammar, with Analysis ; published by William 
Wood & Co. , New York. Raub's Practical English Grammar ; 
published by Porter & Coates, Philadelphia. Kerl's Comprehen- 
sive English Grammar ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & 
Co., New York. 

Reading : Notes of Talks on Teaching, by Francis W. Parker, 
Reported by Lelia E. Partridge ; published by E. L. Kellogg & 
Co., New York. Primary Reading and How to Teach It, Boston 
Method ; published by the Educational Publishing Co., Boston. 
Sheldon's Manual for Teachers ; published by Scribner & Co., 
New York. Educational Gazette ; published by Alvin P. Chapin, 
Rochester, N. Y. Gill's School Management; published by Jan- 
sen, McClurg & Co., Chicago. De Graff's Schoolroom Guide ; 
published by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y. Education, an In- 
teraational Magazine ; published by New England Publishing Co., 
Boston, Harvey's Graded Fifth Reader ; published by Van Ant- 
werp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati. Sanders' Union Fourth Reader 
and American Educational Reader, No. 5 ; published by Ivison, 
Blakeman, Taylor & Co, New York. Practical Elocution, by J. 
W. Shotmaker ; published by National School of Elocution and 
Oratory, Philadelphia. Fertich's Instructive Elocution ; pub- 
lished by W. H. Fertich, Muncie, Ind. 

Composition and Rhetoric : Hart's Composition and Rhetoric ; 
published by Eldredge & Brother, Philadelphia. Course of Com- 
position and Rhetoric, Quackenbos' ; published by D. Appleton & 
Co., New York. Complete Rhetoric, by C. W, Bardeen ; pub- 
lished by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. A Text Book on Rhet- 
oric, by Brainerd Kellogg, A. M.; published by Clark & May- 
nard, New York. Kerl's Composition and Rhetoric ; published by 
Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. Harvey's English 
Grammar ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co , Cincinnati. 
Fowler's English Grammar; published by Harper & Brothers, 
New York. 

Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene : Hitchcock's Anatomy 
and Physiology ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., 
New York. Cutter's Analytic Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene; 



PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 9 

published by J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. Young Folk's 
Physiology, Blaisdell ; published by Cowperthwait & Co., Phila- 
delphia. Coming's Class-Book of Physiology ; published by D. 
Appleton & Co., New York. Kirk's Hand-Book of Physiology; 
published by Henry C. Lea, Philadelphia. School Physiology, 
Dunglison ; published by Porter and Coates, Philadelphia. Hand- 
Book of Health, by J. N. Loughborough ; published by Seventh 
Day Adventist Publishing Association, Battle Creek, Michigan. 
Hygiene for Young People. Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Physi- 
ology ; published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. Lessons on 
the Human Body, Brand ; published by Leach, Shewell & San- 
born, Boston and New York. The Laws of Health, Hutchison ; 
published by Clark & Maynard, New York. Smith's Elementary 
Physiology and Hygiene ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor 
& Co., New York. First Lessons in Physiology ; published by 
Central Publishing Company, St. Louis. Brown's Physiology and 
Hygiene ; published by Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati 
and New York. Syllabus of Lectures in Anatomy and Physiology, 
Stowell; published by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y. American 
Cyclopaedia ; published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. Huxley 
and Youraans' Physiology and Hygiene; published by D. Apple- 
ton & Co., New York. The Essentials of Physiology and Hygiene 
to Accompany White's Physiological Chart ; published by James 
T. White & Co., New York. Hutchison's Physiology and Hygiene; 
published by Clark & Maynard, New York. Walkei-'s Anatomy, 
Physiology and Hygiene ; published by A. Lovell & Co., New 
York. 

Book-Keeping : The National Accountant, by J. C. Smith, 
A.M.; published by J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. Duff's 
Book-Keeping; published by the author, P. Duff, New York. 
Marsh's Course of Single Entry Book-Keeping; published by D. 
Appleton & Co., New York. Bryant and Stratton's Common 
School Book-Keeping, and Robinson's Progressive Higher Arith- 
metic; published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. 
Stoddard's Complete Arithmetic : published by Sheldon & Co., 
New York. A New Method in Double Entry Book-Keeping, by 
George E. Seymour, A. M. ; published by American School Book 
Co., St. Louis. Principles and Practice of Book-Keeping, by Cal- 
vin G. Hutchison and Walter S. Parker ; published by William 
Ware & Co., Boston. The Steps of Book-Keeping, by H, W. Ells- 
worth; published by Taintor Brothers & Co., New York. Meser- 



10 PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 

vey's Book-Keeping ; published by Thompson, Brown & Co., Bos- 
ton. The Home Library, by R. S. Peale ; published by the Home 
Library Association, Chicago. 

Civil Government : Analysis of Civil Government, Townsend ; 
published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York, Legis- 
lative Manual, State of New Jersey, 1887 ; published by T. F. 
Fitzgerald, Legislative Reporter, Trenton, New Jersey. North- 
ern's Civil Government ; published by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, 
New York. Alden's Citizen's Manual ; published by Sheldon and 
Company, New York. The Tribune Almanac, and Political Reg- 
ister for 1887, by Edward McPherson, published by the Tribune 
Association, New York. Hart's Brief Exposition of the Constitu- 
tion of the United States ; published by J. H. Butler & Co., Phila- 
delphia. Maury's Manual of Geography ; published by University 
Publishing Company, New York. Young's Civil Govei-nment ; 
published by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. Swinton's Con- 
densed United States History ; published by Ivison, Blakeman, 
Taylor & Co. , New York. Hand Book of Civil Government by 
Thomas D. Suplee, A. M., F. C. S. ; published by Eldredge and 
Brother, Philadelphia. Scudder's History of the United States ; 
published by J. H. Butler, Philadelphia. 

Natural Philosophy : Principles of Physics, Silliman, Ele- 
ments of Natural Philosophy, Cooley, and Cooley's New Natural 
Philosophy, also Wells's Natural Philosophy ; published by Ivison, 
Blakeman, Taylor & Co., New York. Quackenbos' Natural Phi- 
losophy ; published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. First Les- 
sons in Philosophy, also Elementary Philosophy, by Gillet and 
Rolfe ; published by Potter, Ainsworth & Co, New York. First 
Principles of Natural Philosophy, also Elements of Natural Phi- 
losophy, by Elroy M. Avery, Ph.D. ; published by Sheldon & Co., 
New York. Steele's New Physics ; published by A. S. Barnes & 
Co. , New York. 

Practical Pedagogy : Manual of Object-Teaching, by N. A. 
Calkins ; published by Harper & Brothers, New York. A Treat- 
ise on Pedagogy, by Edwin C. Hewett, LL.D. ; and Elements of 
Pedagogy, by Emerson E. White, A.M., LL.D. ; published by Van 
Antwerp, Bragg & Co., Cincinnati. On the Province of Methods 
in Teaching, by J. H. Hoose, A. M., Ph.D. ; The School Room 
Guide, by E. V. De Graff, A.M., How to Secure and Retain Atten- 
tion, by James L. Hughes, The Philosophy of Education, by T. 
Tate, P.R.A.S., Lectures on the Science and Art of Education, by 



PUBLISHERS NOTICE. H 

Joseph Payne, Outlines of Psychology, by James Sully, M.A. ; 
published by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y. Methods of Instruc- 
tion, by James Pyle Wickersham, A.M. ; published by J. B. Lip- 
pincott & Co., Philadelphia. School Management, by Josepli Lan- 
don ; published by Willard Small, Boston. The Teachers' and 
Students' Library ; published by T. S. Denison, Chicago. Theory 
and Practice of Teaching, by David P. Page, A.M.; published 
by A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. Principles and Practice otf 
Teaching, — Science Primer on Logic ; published by D. Appleton 
& Co., New York. A Manual of Discipline and Instruction for 
the Use of the Teachers of the Primary Schools of New York ; 
published by J. S. Babcock, New York. Systems of Education, 
by John Gill ; published by D. C. Heath & Co. , Boston. Plain 
Educational Talks, by Albert N. Raub, A.M. ; published by Clax- 
ton, Remsen & Haffelfinger, Philadelphia. Notes of Talks on 
Teaching, by Francis W. Parker, Reported by Lelia E. Partridge ; 
published by E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York. The Art of 
Teaching School, by J. R. Sypher ; published by J. M. Stoddard 
& Co., Philadelphia. School Management, by John Gill ; pub- 
lished by Jansen, McCIurg & Co., Chicago. Sheldon's Elementary 
Instruction ; published by Scribner & Co., New York. 

School Discipline : Development Lessons ; published by A. 
Lovell & Co., New York. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Preface 3 

Publisher's Notice 5 

Questions ou United States History 13 

Answers to Questions on United States History 26 

Questions on Mathematical and Political Geography 68 

Answers to Questions on Mathematical and Political Geography 76 

Questions on Physical Geography 97 

Answers to Questions on Physical Geography 103 

Questions on Arithmetic 134 

Answers to Questions on Arithmetic 131 

Questions on Orthography 153 

Answers to Questions on Orthography 154 

Questions on Reading 161 

Answers to Questions on Reading 164 

Questions on Grammar 175 

Answers to Questions on Grammar 188 

Questions on Composition and Rhetoric 211 

Answers to Questions on Composition and Rhetoric 215 

Questions on Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene 229 

Answers to Questions on Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 238 

Questions on Civil Government 275 

Answers to Questions on Civil Government 281 

Questions on Book-Keeping 800 

Answers to Questions on Book-Keeping 804 

Questions on Natural Philosophy 318 

Answers to Questions on Natural Philosophy 325 

Questions on Practical Pedagogy 354 

Answers to Questions on Practical Pedagogy 360 

School Discipline 384 



THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS. 
UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

1. Define History. 

2. Into what three divisions is the world's history 
usually divided ? 

3. What is the general belief regarding the origin of 
the first inhabitants of the Western Continent ? 

4. What evidences are there which show that America 
was inhabited at a period of remote antiquity ? 

5. For what purposes do these mounds seem to have 
been built ? 

6. What reasons are there for believing that the 
Mound Builders were not Indians ? 

7. How many Indians were in North America at the 
time of the first European settlements ? 

8. Why were the inhabitants of North America 
called Indians ? 

9. What white men first saw the Western Continent ? 

10. Who were the Northmen ? 

11. What evidences support the belief that the North- 
men visited America ? 

12. Who is credited with discovering that the earth 
is not a plane ? 

13. What was the great mistake made by Columbus ? 



14 Tilt: PBACTICAL QUESTION noOK. 

II. W hat ol>joi-t hail (\>hiiuhus in ilosiring to make a 
Yoyago of ilivSiHtvorv ? 

15. \Vl\y Nvav^i a passago to Imlla by soa so desirable ? 

U). What iiulii-atioius of haul at the west had boon 
observed at the tiiuo of Ooliuubus ? 

17. Give a brief sketeh of the life of Columbus. 

18. To whom did Coluuibiis go for aid iu procuring 
ships and sailors? 

10. How mauy men aeeompanied Columbus ? 

:iO. What land i>f tl\o Western Continent was first 
se<n\ by Columbus ? 

SI. When did Columbus land ? 

23. AVhat other voyages did Columbus make ? 

S3. IMd Columbus know that ho had discovered a 
new eontinent ? 

x*4. When did Columbus die ? 

:35. Where was he b\iried ? 

2t». Why was the Mew World nauu\l Amerioa ? 

27. When and by whom was the name tirst used ? 

38. Into what four periods is the history of the 
United States conveniently divided ? 

39. Name the leading European countries that made 
exploriitions to America during the tirst period. 

oO. Name the leading Spanisli exploivrs. 
31. What discoveries did Ponce do Leon nuike ? 
33. What noted discovery did Balboa nuike ? 
33. Describe the explorations made by Magellan. 
84. Give an account of De Soto's explorations. 
35. What purpose had ^lelemlez in nuiking his expe- 
dition ? What city was founded by him ? 

86. What territory in the New World was held by 
Spain at the close of the sixteenth century ? 

87. Nanu> the leading Fivnch exploixn-s. 

38, l)t\?erilH> the explorations of Verrazzani. 
3i>. What did Cartier discover ? 



UNITED STATUS HISTORY. 15 

40. Why was the 8t. Lawrence m called ? 

41, When and by whom wuk the firHt parmfj/aant 
French Hettlemcnt mado in America ? 

4^. What territory in the New World wa« claimed by 
I'ranoo ? 

4.'i. Who waH the first to discover the mainland of tlie 
Western Continent ? 

44. Name the leadin;^ English explorern. 

45. What extent of coa»;t wa« explored by the CabotH ? 

46. IJy reason of Cabot's explorations, what territory 
v/aH claimed by England ? 

47. Who waH Sir Francis Drake ? 

48. What Englishman made the first attempt \/> colo- 
nize America ? 

40. \)(if.(in\)(i Raleigh's attempts to colonize Roanoke 
Inland. 

50. Who was the first English child f;orn jn Uje .New 
World ? 

51. Why wa« the country explored by Kaleigh called 
Virginia ? 

t>Z. What was the London Company ? 

53. Of whom was the Plymouth Company com- 
posed ? 

54. What lands were granted to the London and Ply- 
mouth Companies ? 

55. What expe^lition did the Dulx;h make to America ? 
50. What territory did the Dutch claim on acwjunt 

of Huds^jn's discovery ? 

57. Name five of the first fK^rmanent settlements 
made in America, during the early part of the seven- 
teenth century. 

58. What English settlement was ma^le by the Lon- 
don Company ? 

50. ^V'hat was the character of the first settlerw of 
Virginia? 



16 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

60. What other circumstances affected the colony 
adversely ? 

61. Who was the leading man of the colony ? 

62. In what way was Smith useful to the colony ? 

63. What is the story of Smith and Pocahontas ? 

64. What was the government of the colony ? 

65. When and where did the first representative as- 
sembly meet in America ? 

QQ. How were wives obtained by the settlers ? 

67. When was negro slavery introduced into Amer- 
ica ? 

68. What was the Navigation Act ? 

69. What were the purpose and the effects of the 
Navigation Acts ? 

70. Describe Bacon's Rebellion. 

71. AYho were the Puritans ? 

72. Where did the Puritans intend to settle in Amer- 
ica ? 

73. When and where did the Puritans land ? 

74. What was the government of the Plymouth Col- 
ony ? 

75. When and by whom was the Colony of Massachu- 
setts Bay founded ? 

76. Describe the settlement of New Hampshire. 

77. When and by whom was Connecticut settled ? 

78. Where were the first settlements made ? 

79. Describe the settlement of Ehode Island. 

80. What union of New England colonies occurred in 
1643 ? 

81. When and by whom was Maine first settled ? 

82. What was the cause of King Philip's war ? 

83. What was the result of this war ? 

84. What was the object of Hudson's explorations ? 

85. When was the Hudson River discovered by him ? 

86. Why did he not continue in the Dutch service ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 17 

87. Of what couutry was he a native ? 

88. Describe the first settlements in New York made 
by the Dutch. 

89. Name the Dutch goYernors of New York. 

90. When did the Dutch lose control of New Amster- 
dam ? 

91. "When and where was Harvard College founded ? 

92. When and where was the College of William and 
Mary founded ? 

93. When and where was Yale College founded ? 

94. When and where was Dartmouth College founded ? 

95. Describe the first settlement of Delaware. 

96. When and by whom was Pennsylvania settled ? 

97. What was the character of Penn's dealings with 
the Indians and Swedes ? 

98. Describe the settlement of New Jersey. 

99. When and where was Maryland first settled ? 

100. What was the object of the settlement ? 

101. What were the provisions of the Toleration Act ? 

102. Describe Clayborne's Rebellion. 

103. Describe the settlement of North and South 
Carolina. 

104-. When and where was Georgia first settled ? 

105. What was the object of this settlement ? 

106. What was the Grand Model prepared for the 
Carolinas ? 

107. What was the population of the colonies at the 
close of the colonial period ? 

108. From what country did most of the settlers of 
the U. S. come ? 

] 09. What other nationalities were represented ? 

110. Which colony was most important in com- 
merce ? 

111. By what nationality was New York largely set- 
tled ? 

2 



18 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

112. What customs inaugurated by the Dutch are 
still in vogue ? 

113. What forms of government existed in the col- 
onies ? 

114. How were these forms of government distributed 
among the colonies ? 

115. What were the effects of the delusion known as 
Salem witchcraft ? 

116. Describe the effects of the delusion in N"ew York, 
known as the negro plot, 

117. When were post-offices first established in the 
colonies ? 

118. When was the first printing-press set up in 
America ? 

119. When was the first permanent newspaper pub- 
lished ? 

130. Who was the first American editor ? 

131. What was the first important book written by a 
native of this country ? 

133. Mention some of the rigid laws enforced in New 
England. 

133. What is meant by Mason and Dixon's line ? 

134. What were the inter-colonial wars ? 

135. What was the cause of King William's war ? 

136. What Indians aided the French in this war ? 

137. What Indians aided the English ? 

138. What tribes of Indians composed the " Five Na- 
tions " ? 

139. What happened during this war-? 

130. What took place at Schenectady, New York ? 

131. What was the result of this war ? 

133. What was the cause of Queen Anne's war ? 

133. By what name is this war known in Europe ? 

134. What happened during this war ? 

135. What was the result of this Avar ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 19 

136. What was the cause of King George's war ? 

137. What was the most important event in this 
AVar ? 

138. What was the result of this war ? 

139. What were the causes of the French and Indian 



war 



V 



140. When did this war begin and close ? 

141. Between what nations was this war fought ? 
143. Name the five principal points of attack in this 

war. 

143. What happened in Acadia during this war ? 

144. What poem is founded on this incident ? 

145. Name the important events of this war. 

146. Name some of the leading generals of this war. 

147. Which party was successful ? 

148. What treaty closed the war ? 

149. What were the terms of the treaty ? 

150. How much money was spent by the colonists in 
this war ? 

151. What was the general cause of the American 
Revolution ? 

152. What were some of the remote or natural causes ? 

153. What were some of the subordinate causes of the 
Eevolution ? 

154. What were Writs of Assistance ? 

155. What was the Stamp Act ? 

156. What other acts passed by Parliament were of- 
fensive to the colonists ? 

157. When and where did the first Colonial Cojigress 
meet ? 

158. What did this Congress do ? 

159. When and where was the first Continental Con- 
gress held ? 

160. What did this Congress do ? 

161. What two parties had arisen in the colonies ? 



20 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

162. When and where did the second Continental 
Congress convene ? 

163. When and where was the first blood of the Rev- 
olutionary War shed ? 

164. When and where was the first actual battle 
fought ? 

165. When did Washington take command of the 
American army ? 

166. Of what did the army then consist ? 

167. Describe the adoption by Congress of the Declar- 
ation of Independence. 

168. When were the Stars and Stripes adopted as the 
emblem of this country ? 

169. What aid did France give to the American cause ? 

170. What noted persons from other European na- 
tions assisted the Americans ? 

171. Describe the treason of Benedict Arnold. 

172. Name ten important battles of the Eevolution, 
giving dates, results, and commanding officers. 

173. What act virtually closed the war ? 

174. When was a treaty of peace concluded ? 

175. What were the terms of the treaty ? 

176. Under what was the government of the colonies 
first organized ? 

177. What were some of the defects of the Articles of 
Confederation ? 

178. When was the Constitution adopted ? 

179. When did the Constitution go into effect ? 

180. What two political parties grew out of differ- 
ences of opinion regarding the Constitution ? 

181. Who were the leaders of these two parties ? 

182. Name the different places where the Continental 
Congress met. 

183. What was the time and result of the first general 
election held under the Constitution ? 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 21 

184. Name the members of Washington's cabinet. 

185. When and where was Washington inaugurated ? 

186. What cities have been the seat of the United 
States Government ? 

187. Name the important events of Washington's ad- 
ministration. 

188. When was the first census taken in the United 
States ? 

189. What President succeeded Washington ? 

190. Name important events of Adams's administra- 
tion. 

191. When did Congress first assemble in Washington 
City? 

192. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws ? 

193. When did Washington die ? 

194. Describe the election of the third President of 
the United States. 

195. Name the important events of Jefferson's ad- 
ministration. 

196. Who was the fourth President of the United 
States ? 

197. By what party was he elected ? 

198. What was the chief event of Madison's adminis- 
tration ? 

199. What were the causes of the War of 1812 ? 

200. Describe five naval battles of the War of 1812. 

201. Mention three important land battles of this war. 

202. When and by what treaty was this war ended ? 

203. Who was the fifth President of the United States ? 

204. Name important events of Monroe's administra- 
tion. 

205. What was the Monroe Doctrine ? 

206. What was the Missouri Compromise ? 

207. On what conditions was Florida ceded to the 
United States ? 



22 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

208. Who was the sixth President of the United 
States ? 

209. What was the peculiarity of Adams's election ? 

210. Mention the important events of Adams's ad- 
ministration. 

211. What is a protective tariff? 

213. Who was the seventh President of the United 
States ? 

213. Name the important events of Jackson's admin- 
istration. 

214. Who was the eighth President of the United 
States ? 

215. Mention the important events of Van Buren's 
administration. 

216. Who was the ninth President of the United 
States ? 

217. How long did Harrison remain in office ? 

218. What were the most important events of Tyler's 
administration ? 

219. Who was the eleventh President of the United 
States ? 

220. What was the most important fact of Polk's ad- 
ministration ? 

221. What was the cause of the war with Mexico ? 

222. What campaigns were planned for this war in 
1846 and 1847 ? 

223. Name the principal battles of this Avar. 

224. Who were victorious in this war ? 

225. What were the terms of the treaty which ended 
the Mexican War ? 

236. Who was the twelfth President of the United 
States ? 

237. How long did Taylor's administration continue ? 
228. Name the important events of Fillmore's admin- 
istration. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 23 

239. What were the provisions of the Omnibus Bill, 
or Compromise of 1850 ? 

230. "Who was the fourteenth President of the United 
States ? 

231. What were the principal events of this adminis- 
tration ? 

233. What was the Gadsden purchase ? 

233. Describe the Kansas-Nebraska bill. 

234. Who was the fifteenth President of the United 
States ? 

235. Give a summary of events during Buchanan's 
administration. 

236. What was the Dred Scott decision ? 

237. Describe John Brown's raid. 

238. Who was the sixteenth President of the United 
States ? 

239. What action was taken in the South soon after 
Lincoln's election ? 

240. What States followed South Carolina in the act 
of secession ? 

241. What government was organized by these South- 
ern States ? 

243. By what war was Lincoln's administration dis- 
tinguished ? 

243. What were the principal causes of this war ? 

244. When was the first gun of the Rebellion fired ? 

245. What States composed the Southern Confederacy? 

246. Name the important battles of the Rebellion in 
which the Confederates were successful. 

247. Name the important battles in which the Fed- 
erals were successful. 

248. Name the important battles in which neither 
army was successful. 

249. When was the Emancipation Proclamation issued 
by President Lincoln, and what was it ? 



24 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

250. What were the closing acts of the war ? 

251. What was the last fight of the war ? 
253. What loss of life was caused by the war ? 

253. What was the Union debt at the close of the 
war ? 

254. When and by whom was Lincoln assassinated ? 

255. Who then became President ? 

256. Describe the impeachment of Andrew Johnson. 

257. Who was the eighteenth President of the United 
States ? 

258. Who was the nineteenth President of the United 
States ? 

259. How was the dispute arising from his election 
settled ? 

260. Who was the twentieth President of the United 
States ? 

261. Describe the death of President Garfield. 

262. Who succeeded President Garfield ? 

263. Who became the twenty-second President of the 
United States ? 

MISGELLANEO US Q UESTIONS. 

264. Name the original thirteen colonies. 

265. What practice regarding civil service officers did 
President Jackson inaugurate ? 

266. When and where was the first telegraph line 
established ? 

267. Describe the finding of gold in California. 

268. How or by what amendment was slavery abol- 
ished in the United States ? 

269. What were the Alabama Claims ? 

270. What was the population of the United States in 
1880? 

271. What is meant by Civil Service Keform ? 



UNITED STATES mSTORY. 25 

272. What father and son were Presidents ? 

273. What Presidents died in office ? 

274. What Presidents were assassinated ? 

275. What Vice-Presidents have become Presidents ? 

276. What Presidents have served two terms ? 

277. What Presidents have served during wars ? 

278. Give an account of the fire in Chicago. 

279. Name four noted American statesmen. 

280. Name four noted American authors. 

281. Name four noted American military commanders. 

282. Name four noted American orators. 

283. Name two noted American naturalists. 

284. What was the Specie Eesuraption Act ? 

285. When was the Pacific Eailroad completed ? 

286. When was the first locomotive engine used in 
America ? 

287. When was the first successful steamboat built ? 

288. How was the Territory of Alaska acquired by 
the United States ? 

289. What was the Amnesty Proclamation ? 

290. What was secured by the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment to the Constitution ? 

291. What was secured by the Fifteenth Amendment ? 

292. What should be the aim of the teacher of history ? 



26 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS. 
UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

1. History is a statement of the progress of a nation, 
with philosophical inquiries respecting effects and causes. 
— Webster's Diet. 

History may be defined, in a general way, as the rec- 
ord of the life of mankind. — Swmton's Outlines of Hist., 
p.l. 

2. Ancient history, from the earliest j^eriod to the 
fall of the Western Eoman Empire, 476 a.d. Mediaeval 
History, from the fall of the Western Eoman Empire to 
the close of the 15th century. Modern history, from the 
close of the 15th century to the present time. — 8win- 
ton's Outlines of Hist., p. 7. 

3. The theory generally considered as the one best 
supported by existing evidence is, that the first inhabit- 
ants were Tartars, or other tribes from Eastern Asia, 
who entered the continent upon the western side, and 
thence gradually occupied the country in a direction 
opposite to the usual flow of civilization, which is from 
east to west. The passage could have been made quite 
readily at Behring's Strait or the Aleutian Islands. The 
northern tribes held a tradition that their ancestors 
crossed a wintry sea full of islands. — Berard's U. S. 
Hist., p. 13. 

4. Human remains, fragments of implements, and 
other evidences of man's workmanship have been found 
under circumstances that imply great antiquity. These 
remains consist of the remains of man with those of 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 27 

animals which do not now exist on the earth, and re- 
mains which seem to be more recent are found extend- 
ing through the Mississippi Valley from the Gulf of 
Mexico to the lakes. They consist of mounds built of 
earth and stone. Ten thousand of these remains are 
found in Ohio alone. — Condensed from Britannica Cy- 
clopcBdia, 

5. These mounds or barrows are generally believed to 
have been built for places of worship, for tombs, for for- 
tifications and observatories. — Berard's U. S. History, 
p. 14. 

6. The Indians, as far as our knowledge of them ex- 
tends, have been unprogressive. They have had no 
well-defined system of religion. Their workmanship is 
entirely unlike that of the remains found. The usual 
tendency of a race is to improve rather than to retro- 
grade. — Ed. 

7. The Indians found on this continent east of the 
Mississippi, by the first European settlers, did not ex- 
ceed 200,000 in number. However, in Mexico, Peru, 
and the Indies there was an immense population. — 
Barnes's Brief Hist, of U. S., p. 12. 

8. When Columbus discovered the first land on the 
American coast, he supposed he had reached a point of 
Farther India, his theory being that by sailing westward 
he would find that land. He and his people, therefore, 
called the native inhabitants Indians. — Lossing's Com. 
Scliool Hist., p. 5, note 2. 

9. The Western Continent was first seen by white 
men in a.d. 986. A Norse navigator by the name of 
Herjulfson, sailing from Iceland to Greenland, was 
caught in a storm and driven westward to Newfound- 
land or Labrador. — Ridpath's Hist, of U. S.,p. 13. 

10. Inhabitants of Norway and Sweden. — Barnes's 
Brief Hist, of U. S.,p. 13. 



28 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

11. The Norse remains which have been found at 
Newport, at Garnet Point, and several other places seem 
to point clearly to some such events as here described ; 
and the Icelandic historians give a uniform and tolerably 
consistent account of these early exploits of their coun- 
trymen. — Ridpatli's U. 8. Hist., ]). 14. 

12. The discovery that the earth is not a plane has 
been ascribed to Thales of Miletus (born about 640 
B.C.), and it is said that he ascribed to it a sjjherical 
figure. — Am. Cyclopcedia, Vol. VI., p. 354. 

13. The great mistake made by Columbus and others 
who shared his opinions, was not concerning the figure 
of the earth, but in regard to its size. He believed the 
world to be not more than ten thousand or twelve thousand 
miles in circumference. — RidpaWs Hist, of U. S.,p. 16. 

14. The design of Columbus was to find a passage by 
sea from Europe to Eastern Asia, called India. — Swin- 
ton's Condensed U. 8. Hist., p. 2. 

15. The reason why he wished to find a passage by 
sea to India was because the traders of Italy, who car- 
ried on a great deal of commerce with India, had to go 
from Europe by the Mediterranean, the Eed Sea, and 
then over land, by caravans, which Avas a very trouble- 
some and expensive way of carrying their goods. A 
cheaper and easier route was much wanted. — 8ivi?iton's 
Cofidensed Hist, of U. 8., p. 2. 

16. A Portuguese pilot had taken from the water, 450 
leagues west of Portugal, a piece of curiously carved 
wood, while a similar piece which had drifted from the 
same quarter was seen on the island of Porto Santo. 
Canes of tropical growth had been washed on the Ma- 
deiras, huge pines on the Azores, and even two drowned 
men, of appearance unlike Europeans, had been found 
on the island of Flores — all from the West. — Am. Cyclo- 
pcedia, Vol. V.,p. 126. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 29 

17. Christopher Columbus, the eldest son of a wool- 
comber, was born at Genoa, Italy, in 1436. He obtained 
his education at the University of Pavia, but at the 
early age of fifteen became a sailor. His experiences at 
sea embraced all that was then known of seamanship. 
After his marriage with the daughter of an old sea- 
captain, he earned his living for some years at the Ma- 
deiras by making maps and charts. Before he was 
thirty-eight years of age he had conceived his grand 
ideas of the form of the earth and the possibility of 
reaching Asia by sailing westward from Europe. — Eclec- 
tic Hist, of U. S., p. 33. 

18. He went first to the magistrates of his native city, 
Genoa, then to the King of Portugal, then to Spain. 
Through his brother he made attempts in England. 
He was about to leave Spain for France, when some of 
his friends who had been moved by his resolution and 
sincerity, made a final appeal to Isabella the queen, who 
granted what was asked. — Condensed from Scudder's 
Hist, of U. 8., p. 13. 

19. In the whole expedition were ninety sailors and 
thirty gentlemen and priests. — Scuddefs Hist, of U. S., 
p. 15. 

20. The first land which he saw was one of the Ba- 
hama Islands, called by the natives Guanahani, by him 
San Salvador, now sometimes called Cat Island. — An- 
derson's Pictorial Hist., p. 12. 

21. At dawn, Friday, October 21, 1492, after a voyage 
of ten weeks (Oct. 12, o.s.). — Seavey's Goodrich's Hist. 
ofU. S.,p.9. 

22. Subsequently three voyages were made by him to 
the New World. He undertook the second in 1493, 
and was absent three years, during which he founded a 
colony on the island of Hayti and continued his ex- 
plorations among the islands. On the third voyage, in 



30 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

1498, he coasted along the northern shores of South 
America. On his fourth voyage, in 1503, Central 
America was discovered. — Berard^s U. S. Hist., p. 27. 

23. He died in the belief that he had found only a 
portion of Eastern Asia. — Lossi?ig's Com. School Hist., 
p. 13. 

24. He spent his last days in sickness and poverty, 
and died May 20, 1506.— Scudder's Hist, of U. S.,p. 22. 

25. His body was first dejDosited in the convent of St. 
Francisco, but afterward moved to a monastery in Se- 
ville. Some years later it was taken to the New World 
he had discovered and deposited in the cathedral at St. 
Domingo. After resting here for more than two hun- 
dred and fifty years, his remains were, in 1795, again 
removed, and with great pomp conveyed to the cathe- 
dral of Havana, where they now repose. — Seavey^s 
Goodrich's Hist, of U. S., p. 10. 

26. The New World was named America, from 
Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant who accom- 
panied a Spanish expedition which touched the coast of 
South America some months after Columbus had dis- 
covered it. A narrative written by Amerigo was the 
cause of his name's being given to the western conti- 
nent. — CampheWs Concise School Hist., p. 10. 

27. In 1507. From a printing-press of a college near 
Strasburg this letter of Amerigo was sent out ; and the 
printer, who was a geographer, said in his preface : 
''And the fourth part of the world having been discov- 
ered by Americus, may well be called Amerige — that is, 
the land of Americus, or America. " — Scudder's Hist, of 
U. S.,p. 24. 

28. First, Period of Discoveries, from 1492 to 1607. 
Second Period, History of the Colonies, from 1607 to 
1775. Third Period, Eevolutionary War, from 1775 to 
1789. Fourth, Constitutional Period, from 1789 to the 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 31 

present time. — 8101711071' s Co7idensed U. S. Hist., Table 
of Contents. 

29. The principal countries that made explorations 
during this period were Spain, France, and England. — 
—Id., ^.9. 

30. Columbus, Vespucci, De Leon, De ISTaryaez, De 
Ayllon, Magellan, De Soto, Melendez. — RidpatKs Hist, 
of U. 8., Chart I. 

31. In 1512, Ponce de Leon [Pone'tha da la-on'j sailed 
from Porto Rico [reko] and discovered the coast of Florida. 
He called the country Florida, because he discovered it 
on Easter Sunday — called by the Spaniards Pascua Florida 
[pahs-kooah flore-dah]. De Leon was an old Spanish 
enthusiast, and was looking for a fabled fountain of im- 
mortal youth. — 8ivi?ito7i's Condensed U.8. Hist., p. 10. 

32. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean Sept. 26, 
1513, while ascending the mountains of the Isthmus of 
Panama. — Henry's 8cliool Hist, of U. 8., p. 16. 

33. Magellan was the first European to sail upon the 
Pacific (1519). On account of its calm, peaceful ap- 
pearance when first traversed, he gave it the name Fa- 
cijic. He was also the first that sailed around the world 
(1519-21).— M,j9. 16. 

34. In the spring of 1541, De Soto discovered the 
Mississippi River, crossing it at about the thirty-fifth 
parallel of latitude. He continued far into the western 
country, but found no gold mines nor rich cities, as he 
had expected. — Berard's U. 8. History, p. 29. 

35. In 1565 a Spanish soldier named Melendez [May- 
len'-deth] was commissioned by the King of Spain to 
conquer Florida and destroy a colony of French Protes- 
tants who had lately settled in that country. Immedi- 
ately after landing, he established St. Augustine [teen], 
the oldest city in the United States. — 8winton's Con- 
densed Hist, of U. 8., p. 13. 



32 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

36. At the close of the 16th century Spain held pos- 
session of the West Indies, Yucatan, Mexico, and 
Florida.— ^d 

37. Verrazzani, Cartier, Koberval, Kibault, Laudon- 
niere, De La Koche, and De Monts. — RidpaWs Hist, 
of U. 8., Chart I. 

38. Verrazzani [Va-rat-tsah'ne], a Florentine, was 
sent out by the French king, in the year 1524, in com- 
mand of an exploring expedition. He first touched at 
the coast of North Carolina, and explored as far as 
Newfoundland. It is believed that he entered the har- 
bors of New York and Newport. Verrazzani's voyage 
was the foundation of the French claim in America. — 
Harper^ s Hist, of U. S., p. 10. 

39. In 1534, James Cartier [kar-tyea'] explored and 
named the Gulf and River St. Lawrence. — Swinton's 
Co7idensed Hist, of U. 8., p. 14. 

40. The name was given because the discovery was 
made on the festival day of St. Lawrence in the calen- 
dar of the Roman Catholic Church. — Lossing's Com. 
School Hist, of U. 8., p. 17. 

41. In 1605 De Monts founded Port Royal in Acadia 
(Nova Scotia). — Swinton's Condeiised U. 8. Hist., p. 24. 

42. French claims extended south, under the name 
of Acadia, to the latitude of Philadelphia, and under 
the name of New France, indefinitely. — Seavey^s Good- 
rich's Hist, of U. 8., p. 20. 

43. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing in be- 
half of the English king, in the summer of 1497, fell in 
with land which is believed to have been the coast of 
Labrador. Thus the continent was discovered by Cabot 
more than a year before Columbus saw it. — CampleWs 
Concise Hist, of U. 8., p. 15. 

44. The Cabots, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh, Bartliolomew Gosnold, 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 33 

Martin Pring, and George Way mouth. — Henry's School 
Hist, of U. S.,p. 25. 

45. In a second voyage, made by Sebastian Cabot in 
1498, the coast, from Labrador to Chesapeake Bay — 
some say to Florida — was explored. — Anderson's Picto- 
rial Hist, of U. S.,pp. 13, 14. 

48. By reason of them, that country based her claim 
to all the region from Labrador to Florida. — Id., p. 14. 

47. Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman who 
navigated the Pacific Ocean. He sailed north in 1579, 
as far as Cape Orford, Oregon, and, naming the coun- 
try New Albion, took possession of it for his queen. 
He then returned to England by the Cape of Good 
Hope, thus completing the second circumnavigation 
of the globe. — Seavey's Goodrich's Hist, of U. S., 
p. 16. 

48. The first attempt of the English to colonize 
America was made by the brave Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 
who, under authority of Queen Elizabeth, endeavored 
to establish a settlement at Newfoundland (1583). The 
enterprise was unsuccessful. — Henry's School Hist, of 
U. S., p. 21. 

49. In 1585, Raleigh sent out a colony with Ralph 
Lane as governor. They landed on Roanoke Island, 
where they remained nearly a year, when they were 
taken back to England by Sir Francis Drake, who 
stopped there on his way home from the West Indies. 
Another colony Avas sent out by Raleigh in 1587, with 
John White as governor. White went back to England 
for supplies. When he returned, after three years, the 
colonists had disappeared. They were never heard of 
more. — Condensed from Campbell's Concise Hist, of 
U. 8., p. 16. 

60. The first white child of English parents in 
America was born at the temporary settlement on the 

8 



34 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

island of Roanoke, in 1587. Her name was Virginia 
Dare. — Henry's School Hist, of U. S., p. 21. 

51. The country received the name of Virginia in 
honor of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. — Swinton's Con- 
detised U. S. Hist., p. 17. 

52. The London Company was an association com- 
posed of nobles, gentlemen, and merchants, residing in 
London. — Taylofs Model School Hist., p. 39. 

53. The Plymouth Company was composed of persons 
from Plymouth, in the west of England. — Id., p. 40. 

54. To the former corporation was assigned all the 
region between the thirty-fourth and thirty-eighth de- 
grees of latitude, and to the latter the tract extending 
from the forty-first to the forty-fifth degree. — RidpatWs 
Hist. ofU. S.,p. 43. 

55. The Dutch made a single expedition under Henry 
Hudson, who discovered and explored the Hudson Eiver, 
and traversed the coast northward to Hudson Bay. — 
Taylor's Model School Hist., pp. 34, 35. 

56. On this discovery the Dutch based their claim to 
the region extending from the Delaware River to Cape 
Cod. They gave to it the name of New Netherland. — 
Barnes's Brief Hist, of IT. S.,p. 39. 

57. The French at Port Royal, N. S., in 1605. 
The English at Jamestown, in 1607. 

The French at Quebec, in 1608. 
The Dutch at New York, in 1613. 
The English Puritans at Plymouth, in 1620. 

—Id., p. 40. 

58. In May, 1607, a colony of one hundred and five 
persons, under the auspices of the London Company, 
began the settlement of Jamestown, on the James River, 
in Virginia. This was the first permanent English set- 
tlement in America. — Campbell's Concise Hist, of U. S., 
p. 23. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 35 

59. The first settlers at Jamestown were idle, improv- 
ident, dissolute. Of the one hundred and five men who 
came with Newport in the spring of 1607, only twelve 
were common laborers. There were four carpenters 
in the company, and six or eight masons and black- 
smiths, but the lack of mechanics was compensated by 
a long list of forty-eight gentlemen. — RidpaWs Hist, 
of U. S., p. 57. 

60. A large portion of the provisions had been spoiled 
during the long voyage. The Indians around them 
were unfriendly and without food. Sickness attacked 
them ; and early in September, one-half of the emigrants 
were dead. — Lossitig's Com. School Hist, of U. S., p. 27. 

61. Captain John Smith, a man whose bold and de- 
termined character, combined with wisdom and fore- 
sight, constituted him the benefactor, and indeed the 
true hero, of the first colony of Virginia. — Condensed 
from Berard's TJ. S. Hist., p. 49. 

62. He enforced the primitive rule that he who would 
not work should not eat ; he put an end to quarreling 
and profanity, and in time he taught the "gentlemen" 
to swing their axes with the rest. Meanwhile he ex- 
plored Chesapeake Bay and all its tributary rivers ; cul- 
tivated friendship with the Indians, of whom a power- 
ful confederacy of forty tribes, called Powhatans, occu- 
pied the region, and secured from them needed supplies 
of com. — Eclectic Hist, of U. S., p. 38. 

63. A well-known story is related of Smith in one of 
his expeditions. He was captured by the Indians and 
carried before their chief, Powhatan, whose head-quar- 
ters were near the present site of Kichmond. He was 
condemned to death, but was saved by Powhatan's 
daughter, Pocahontas. It is believed that this is fiction ; 
but there really was such an Indian girl as Pocahontas, 
and, some years after, she married one of the colonists, 



36 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

named John Eolfe. — Swinion's Condensed Hist, of 
U. 8., p. 32. 

64. The colony was governed under a charter granted 
by James I., the supreme government being vested in a 
council resident in England, and the local government 
in a colonial council ; the members of both derived their 
appointment from the King. — Anderson'' s Pictorial Hist, 
of U. >S'.,i). 27. 

65. On the 28th of June, 1619, the first representative 
assembly ever convened in America met at Jamestown, 
and then and there the foundations of the Common- 
wealth were laid. — Lossing^s Com. School Hist, of U. S., 
jo. 32. 

QQ. In 1620, the treasurer of the Company induced 
one hundred and fifty young women of good reputation 
to embark for Virginia. The young planters eagerly 
paid one hundred pounds of tobacco each in order to ob- 
tain a wife, that being at first the expense of each woman's 
passage. Afterward the price was raised to one hundred 
and fifty pounds. — Anderso?i's Junior Class Hist., 
p. 39. 

67. Negro slaves were first brought to V^irginia in a 
Dutch man-of-war, in 1620. They were soon afterward 
introduced into all the other colonies. The price of a 
negro in New Amsterdam ranged between $125 and 
$150. — QuacTcenhos's Hist, of U. S., p. 99. 

68. The British Parliament enforced the Navigation 
Act (1660), which ordered that the commerce of the 
colony should be carried on in English vessels, and that 
their tobacco should be shipped to England. — Barnes's 
Brief Hist, of U. 8., p. 51. 

69. The purpose of these Acts was to give England 
tlie entire control of all the trade of the Colonies. The 
Virginians were not allowed to send their products any- 
where but to England ; they were not allowed to buy 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 37 

goods anywhere but in England ; and every thing had to 
be carried in English vessels. These laws bore very 
heavily on Virginia. They produced great discontent, 
and were one of the causes of the revolution. — Stvinton's 
Condensed Hist, of U. S., pp. 35, 36. 

70. The tyrannical course of Berkeley, and his neglect 
to provide for defense against the ravages, caused many 
of the planters, in 1676, to rise against his government, 
under the lead of Nathaniel Bacon. During this outbreak, 
known as Bacon's Rebellion, the governor was driven from 
Jamestown, which was burned by the insurgents, to pre- 
vent its again being a harbor for the enemy. In the 
midst of his successes Bacon suddenly died, and as there 
was no one to fill his place, the popular forces dispersed. 
Berkeley regained his power and cruelly wreaked his 
vengeance on those who had opposed him. — CamphelVs 
Concise ScJiool Hist, of U. S., p. 27. 

71. The Puritans were dissenters from the Church of 
England, and because they desired 2b purer form of wor- 
ship, received from their enemies in derision, the name 
which they have made honorable. A band of these, with 
their able and pious pastor, John Robinson, in 1608, 
took refuge in Holland from the persecutions they suffered 
in England. After some years they determined to re- 
move to America. — Seavey's Goodrich's Hist, of U. 8., 
pp. 36, 37. 

72. They intended to settle near the Hudson River, 
but after a tempestuous passage of more than two 
months they came to anchor in the harbor of Cape Cod. 
—Id., p. 37. 

73. They landed at the place marked on Captain 
Smith's map as Plymouth. This name they retained. 
The landing was made December 21, 1620. — Siointon's 
Condensed U. 8. Hist. , p. 40. 

74. The Pilgrims, unlike the Virginians, had no char- 



38 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ter from the King or any company. They had therefore 
to govern themselves. On board the Mayflower the men 
had all agreed they would obey the laws that should be 
made for the common good. Their government was a 
pure democracy. They chose John Carver governor for 
one year. — Id., p. 40. 

75. In the year 1628, John Endicott and a small party 
of Puritans settled at Salem, and thus laid the founda- 
tion of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay. — CamphelVs 
Concise Hist, of U. 8., p. 31. 

76. New Hampshire was first settled in 1623, at Little 
Harbor, near Portsmouth, and at Dover, by English 
emigrants sent out by Ferdinand Gorges (gor'jez) and 
John Mason, to whom this region had been granted, un- 
der the name of Laconia. The name Neiu Hampshire 
was given to it in 1629. — Anderson's Ge^ieral History, 
pp. 362, 363. 

77. In 1636, by a company of persons from Massachu- 
setts, with their minister, Mr. Hooker. — Kerney^ s Hist, 
of U. S.,p. 23. 

78. Wethersfield, Windsor,and Hartford. — Campbell's 
Concise Hist, of U. S., p. 38. 

79. Ehode Island was settled by Eoger Williams, 
who had been banished from Massachusetts because of 
his denunciation of the religious intolerance practiced 
there, as well as for certain opinions entertained by him 
with respect to civil matters. The settlement was made in 
1636, oi Providence. — Anderson's General Hist., p. 363. 

80. A union of the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, 
Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut was formed 
(1643), under the title of The United Colonies of New 
England. This was a famous league of colonial times. 
The object was a common protection against the Indians 
and the encroachments of the Dutch and French. — 
Barnes's Brief Hist, of JJ. 8., p. 57. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY, 39 

81. The first settlement in Maine was made by Ferdi- 
nand Gorges in 1636. — Kerney's Hist, of U. 8., p. 22. 

82. The cause of the war was the execution of three 
Indians by the English for the murder of an Indian 
convert who had told the colonists that Philip was con- 
spiring against them, — Swinton's Condensed U. 8. 
Hist., p. 44. 

83. Six hundred whites perished during the war, 
which cost a million dollars. But the result was the 
complete subjugation of the New England Indians. — 
Id., p. 45. 

84. Hudson made four voyages for the purpose of 
finding a shorter passage to the Pacific than the one 
around Cape Horn. — Anderson'' s Gram. 8chool Hist, 
U. 8., p. 68. 

85. In his third voyage, made in 1G09, while sailing 
in the service of ''The Dutch East India Company," he 
discovered the river which bears his name. — Anderso7i's 
Pictorial Hist, of U. 8., p. 60. 

8G. The English would not allow him to return to 
Holland. He sailed again the next year for an English 
company. — 8cudder's Hist, of U. 8., p. 56. 

87. Henry Hudson was an English navigator. — Ber- 
ard's Hist, of U. 8., p. 38. 

88. New York was settled in 1614 by the Dutch, who 
built a fort on Manhattan Island for the purpose of trad- 
ing with the Indians. The actual colonization of the 
country did not commence until 1623, when two settle- 
ments were made — one on Manhattan Island, called 
New Amsterdam, and the other at Albany, called Fort 
Orange. — Anderson's General Hist., pp. 363, 364, 

89. Peter Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller, Sir William 
Kieft, and Peter Stuyvesant, — 8wi7iton's Condensed 
U. 8. Hist., p. 58. 

90. In September, 1664, the English flag floated over 



40 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Manhattan Island. The colony was named New 
York, in honor of the proprietor. — Barnes's Brief Hist., 
p. 67. 

91. In the year 1638, at Cambridge. — Catechism of 
U. 8. Hist., Kerney, p. 24. 

92. In the year 1693, in Virginia. — Id., p. 24. 

93. In the year 1700, at Saybrook, in Connecticut. — 
Id., p. 24. 

94. In the year 1769, at Hanover, New Hampshire. — 
Id., p. 24. 

95. The first permanent settlement in Delaware was 
made (1638) by the Swedes, on a tract of land which 
they called New Sweden, lying near Wilmington. — 
Barnes's Brief Hist, of U. S.,p. 69. 

96. The permanent settlement of Pennsylvania dates 
from the founding of Philadelphia, in 1682, by William 
Penn, a distinguished Quaker. — Anderson's General 
Hist., p. 365. 

97. His conduct toward both the Indians and Swedish 
settlers was characterized by remarkable uprightness. 
With the former he made a treaty and paid them for 
their lands ; to the latter he gave assurances of protec- 
tion in every civil and religious right. — Id., p. 365. 

98. The Dutch, who included New Jersey in the Pro- 
vince of New Netherlands, established a trading post at 
Bergen, as early as 1622 ; but the colonization of the 
country did not commence till 1664, when a settlement 
"was made at Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth) by emi- 
grants from Long Island. — Id., p. 364. 

99. The first settlement was made in 1634, at a place 
which was called St. Mary's, under the direction of 
Leonard Calvert, brother of the proprietor. — Id., p. 365. 

100. To provide an asylum for Roman Catholics, who 
were then persecuted in England. — Id., p. 365. 

101. That no one professing faith in Jesus Christ 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 41 

should be molested on account of his religious belief. — 
Seavey's Goodrich's Hist, of U. S., p. 60. 

102. The Virginia Colony claimed that Lord Balti- 
more's grant covered territory belonging to them. 
Clayborne, a member of the Jamestown Council, was 
especially obstinate in the matter. He had already 
established two trading posts in Maryland, which he 
prepared to defend by force of arms. A bloody skir- 
mish ensued in which his party was beaten. — Barnes's 
Brief Hist, of U. 8., p. 73. 

103. The first permanent settlement in this tract was 
made in 1650, by emigrants from Virginia, who settled 
near the present site of Edenton. In 1670 a colony was 
planted on the western bank of the Ashley Eiver, but 
was soon afterward removed to the present site of 
Charleston. — Anderson's General Hist., p. 366. 

104. The first settlement was made in 1733, at Savan- 
nah.— M, p. 366. 

105. It was founded by a company of benevolent 
gentlemen, who proposed to establish a refuge for the 
poor and the persecuted. — Swinton's Condensed Hist, of 
U. S.,p. 81. 

106. The distinguished statesman. Lord Shaftesbury, 
one of the proprietors, and the eminent philosopher, 
John Locke, drew up for the Carolina Colonies a form 
of government magnificent in design and labored in 
detail, known as the Grand Model. This scheme of 
government was never carried out. — Seavey's Goodrich's 
Hist, of U. S.,p. G5. 

107. The population of the colonies, at the close of 
the colonial period, was nearly 3,000,000. — Swinton's 
Condensed U. S. Hist., p. 90. 

108. In the year 1750 the great body of the inhabitants 
in the colonies were either English or their descendants. 
— Harper's School Hist, of U. S., p. 54. 



42 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

109. The Dutch, French, Scotch, Irish, Swedes, and 
Germans. — Id., p. 54, 

110. The most commercial colony was Massachusetts. 
Boston was the first and most active of all the towns in 
shipping. — Id., p. 55. 

111. Xew York was the only one of the American 
colonies settled by the Dutch. — Swinton's Condensed 
U. S. HisL,p. 57. 

112. Many customs inaugurated by the Dutch are still 
in vogue. Among these is that of Xew Year's Day vis- 
iting. So also to the Dutch we owe our Christmas visit 
of Santa Claus, colored eggs at Easter, doughnuts, 
crullers, and New Year's cookies. — Barneses Brief Hist, 
of U. S., p. 94. 

113. Three forms of gorernment existed — charter, 
proprietary, and royal. — Id., p. 91. 

114. Massachusetts, Ehode Island, and Connecticut 
had charter governments. Maryland and Pennsylvania 
(with Delaware) were proprietary — that is, their pro- 
prietors governed them. Georgia, Virginia, Xew Hamp- 
shire, Xew York, Xew Jersey, and the Carolinas were di- 
rectly subject to the crown. (The last three were at first 
proprietary, but afterward became royal.) — Id., p. 91. 

115. During the 17th century a belief in witchcraft 
prevailed both in Europe and America. In 1692 and 
'93 this delusion raged in and around Salem. Many 
persons were accused of having bewitched others, and of 
these more than twenty were convicted and sentenced to 
death. Some of the victims were virtuous, high-minded 
women, and one was a clergyman. The judges were 
wise and good men, but for the time blinded by super- 
stition.— ^erarc?',? U. S. Hist., p. 65. 

116. In the year 1741 occurred what is known as the 
Negro Plot. Slavery was permitted in the province, and 
the negroes constituted a large fraction of the population. 



UXITED STATES EISTORT, 43 

Some degraded women came forward and gave informa- 
tion that the negroes had made a plot to bam the city, 
kill all who opposed them, and set up one of their own 
nomber as governor. The whole story was the essence 
of absurdity ; but the people were alarmed and ready to 
believe anything. The reward of freedom was offered 
to any slave who would reveal the plot. Many witnesses 
rushed forward with foolish and contradictory stories ; 
the jails were filled with the accused ; and more than 
thirty of the miserable creatures, with hardly the form of 
a trial, were convicted and then hanged or burned to 
death. The verdict of after times has been that there was 
no plot at all. — Condensed from Ridpath's U. S. Hist., 
p. 166. 

11 T. In the year 1693, Parliament voted to establish 
post-oflBces in the colonies, and Thomas Neale was 
authorized to transmit letters and packets "at such 
rates as the planters would agree to give."' — Model School 
Hist., p. 85. 

118. The first printing-press was set up at Cambridge, 
in im^:).— Barnes's Bruf Hist, of V. S., p. 92. 

119. The first permanent newspaper. The Boston Xews 
Letter, was published in 1704 — Id., p. 92. 

120. John Campbell was the first American editor. — 
Model School History, p. ^S. 

121. Cotton Mathers Magnalia, a religious history of 
K'ew England, was the first important book written by 
a native of this country. — Id., p. 90. 

122. Governor "Winthrop prohibited cards and gam- 
ing-tables. A man was whipped for shooting fowl on 
Sunday, Xo man was allowed to keep a tavern who 
did not bear an excellent character and possess property. 
The names of drunkards were posted in the ale-houses, 
and the keepers forbidden to sell them liquor. By order 
of the colony of Connecticut, no person under twenty 



44 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

years of age could use tobacco without a physician's 
order ; no one was allowed to use it oftener than once a 
day, and then not within ten miles of any house. — 
Barries' s Brief Hist of U. S. , p. 93. 

123. The boundary between Pennsylvania and Mary- 
land had caused trouble for many years. It was finally 
settled in 1767, when two surveyors, Mason and Dixon, 
fixed the present boundary. The boundary was after- 
wards known as Mason and Dixon's line. — Swinton's 
Condensed U. S. Hist., p. 69. 

124. I. King William's War (1689-1697) ; II. Queen 
Anne's War (1702-1713); III. King George's War 
(1744-1748) ; IV. French and Indian War (1754-1763). 
^Barnes's Brief Hist, of U- S.,pp. 77, 79, 80, 81. 

125. After James II. fled from England, he sought 
protection of Louis XIV., King of France, who tried to 
reseat him on his throne. This kindled between the two 
countries, in 1689, the flames of war which extended to 
their colonies. — CamplelVs Concise Hist, of U. S., p. 58. 

126. The Indians of Canada and Maine aided the 
French. — Id., p. 58. 

127. The Iroquois (Five Nations of New York) as- 
sisted the English. — Barnes's Brief Hist., p. 77. 

128. The Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, 
and Senecas. — Seaveifs Goodrich'' s U. 8. Hist., p. 22. 

129. Most of the frontier settlements in Maine and 
New Hampshire were broken up or destroyed by the 
French and the savages. — CamphelVs Concise Hist., p. 5S. 

130. In the winter of 1690, a war party of French and 
Indians came through the wilderness from Canada, and 
in the dead of night fell upon the little village of Sche- 
nectady, in New York, and burned it. Sixty of the in- 
habitants were killed. Of the rest, those not taken 
captive fled half naked through the deep snow to 
Albany. — Id., p. 58. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 45 

131. In 1697 a treaty which put an end to it was 
signed at Ryswick (riz'wik), a town in Holland. Each 
party was to have the same territory as before the 
war. — Id., p. 58. 

132. The principal causes of the war were : 1. On the 
death of James II., his son James Francis Edward, The 
Pretender, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as King 
of England, although this kingdom had settled the 
crown on Anne, second daughter of James II. 2. Louis 
had placed his grandson on the throne of Spain, in vio- 
lation of an agreement, to which England was a party 
for preserving the balance of power in Europe. — Seavey's 
Goodrich's Hist, of U. S., p. 83. 

133. War of the Spanish Succession. — Id. , p. 83. 

134. Port Royal was again wrested from the French 
by a combined force of English and colonial troops. In 
honor of the queen the name was changed to Annapolis. 
—Barnes's Brief Hist., pp. 70, 80. 

135. It was ended by the treaty of Utrecht [u-trekt]. 
Acadia was ceded to England. — Id., p. 80, 

136. This war, commonly known in America as King 
George's "War, originated in disputes regarding the suc- 
cession to the throne of Austria, and hence in Europe 
was called the War of the Austrian Succession. — Sea- 
vey's Goodrich's Hist, of U. S.,p. 86. 

137. The most important event of this war in Amer- 
ica was the capture of Louisburg. — Id., p. 86. 

138. A treaty negotiated at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, 
terminated King George's War. By the treaty all con- 
quests of the war were to be mutually restored. — Id., p. 
87. 

139. The first and greatest of the causes was the con- 
flicting territorial claims of the two nations. A second 
cause of war existed in the long-standing national ani- 
mosity of France and England. The third and imme- 



46 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

diate cause of hostilities was a conflict between the fron- 
tiersmen of the two nations in attempting to colonize 
the Ohio YaWej.—Ridpath's U. S. Hist., pp. 213, 216. 

140. This war broke out in 1754, and closed by the 
Treaty of Paris, 1763.— Henry's School Hist, of U. S., 
fp. 45, 48. 

141. Between England and her colonies, with a few 
Indians on one side, and France and her colonies, 
largely aided by the Indians, on the other. — Anderson's 
Gram. School Hist, of U. S.,p. 54. 

142. Fort du Quesne guarded the territory west of the 
Alleghanies ; Crown Point and Ticonderoga, on Lake 
Champlain, closed the route to Canada ; Niagara pro- 
tected the fur trade of the great lakes and the region 
beyond ; Louisburg menaced New England and guarded 
the fisheries ; Quebec, with its strong fortifications, was 
the key to the possession of Canada. — Anderson's Jun- 
ior Class Hist, of U. S.,pp. 92, 93. 

143. The English, under Colonel Monckton, landed 
at the head of the Bay of Fundy, captured the French 
forts and destroyed the settlements. It was a cruel 
deed ; the country was laid waste, and the people driven 
in thousands from their homes, placed on board the 
British vessels, and scattered among the colonists of 
New England and other places. — Id., p. 91. 

144. Longfellow's Evangeline is founded on this inci- 
dent.— 7? /VZ/;ffi/i's U. S. Hist, p. 229. 

145. Washington's journey across the Alleghanies, 
battle of Great Meadows, Braddock's defeat, capture of 
Louisburg, battle of Lake George, capture of Crown 
Point and Ticonderoga, capture of Niagara and Quebec. 
—Henrifs School Hist, of U. S., pp. 46, 47, 48. 

146. English — Braddock, Amherst, Abercombie, 
Wolfe, Prideuux, and Washington ; French — Dieskau 
and Montcalm. — Siointon's Condensed U. S. Hist., p. 108. 



^ 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 47 

147. The contest for the possession of America ended 
triumphantly for the English in 1760. — Id., p. 106. 

14S. The treaty of Paris, 1753; clo'sed the French and 
Indian War. — Id., p. 106. ■ ' - ' 

149. France ceded to Great Britain all her American 
possessions east of the Mississippi and north of the Iber- 
Tille Kiver, in Louisiana. At the same time Spain ceded 
Florida to Great Britain. — Anderson's Hist, of U. S., 
p. 63. 

150. In this war the colonists spent $16,000,000, and 
England repaid only $5,000,000. — Barnes's Brief Hist. 
ofU. S.,p. 90. 

151. The attempt of Great Britain to impose taxes on 
her colonies in America, without their consent, brought 
on the War of the Kevolution, which resulted in the 
independence of the thirteen colonies planted on the 
American coast, and the establishment of a republic, 
under the name of the United States of America. — 
CamphelVs Concise Hist, of U. S., p. 76. 

Ibi. The isolated position of America, the tendency 
of her governments and anti-monarchical institutions, 
the prevailing customs and opinions of her self-reliant 
people, inevitably destined her for a separate national 
existence. — Venable's U. S. Hist., p. 90. 

153. The influence of France, personal character of 
the king, and the passage by Parliament of a number of 
acts destructive of colonial liberty. — Ridpath's Hist, of 
U. 8., pp. 247, 248, 249. 

154. These "Writs" were general search-warrants 
empowering custom-house officers to break open ships, 
stores, and private dwellings, in search of merchandise 
on which it was suspected no duty had been paid. — Ayi- 
derson's Gram. School Hist, of U. S.,p. 66. 

155. The ''Stamp Act," passed in 1765, was an act 
requiring a heavy duty to be paid on all legal docu- 



48 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ments, newspapers, pamplilets, etc. — Adapted from 
Henry's School Hist, of U. S.,p. 54. 

156. The ''Boston Port Bill," passed in 1774, effect- 
ually destroying the business of the New England 
merchants. The "Mutiny Act," passed in 1774, re- 
quiring the colonists to provide quarters and supplies 
for British troops stationed among them. — Henry's 
School Hist, of U. S., p. 54. 

157. The First Colonial Congress met in New York 
City, October 7, 1765. Niue colonies were represented 
by twenty-eight delegates. — Siuinton's Condensed U. S. 
Hist., p. 113. 

158. After mature deliberation, a Declaration of 
Eights, a Petition to the King, and a Memorial to Par- 
liament were adopted. — Anderson's Gram School Hist, 
of U. S., p. QQ. 

159. The first Continental Congress was called at 
Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. — Swinton's Condensed 
U. S. Hist., p. 118. 

160. This body praised the conduct of Massachusetts, 
agreed upon a declaration of rights, recommended the 
suspension of all commercial intercourse with England, 
and sent a petition to the king. Another Congress was 
agreed on to meet in May, 1775. — Id., p. 118. 

161. Two parties had arisen, Whigs and Tories, the 
latter, friends to Parliament and the king. — VenahWs 
U. S. Hist., p. 97. 

162. May 10, 1 775, the second Continental Congress 
convened at Philadelphia. That body decided to raise 
an army of twenty thousand men ; and on the 15th of 
June, by a unanimous vote, elected George "Washington 
commander-in-chief of "the forces raised, or to be raised, 
in defense of American liberties." — Anderson's U. S. 
Hist., p. 71. 

103. The first blood of the Eevolutionary War was 



UNITED STATES HISTORY, 49 

filled at Lexington, Mass., April 19, 1775. — Seavefs 
Goodrich's Hist, of U. 8., p. 111. 

164. On the the 17th of June [1775] was fought the 
battle of Bunker Hill, in Charlestown, Mass., in which 
the Americans, after having repulsed twice their num- 
ber of the English, were compelled to retreat in con- 
sequence of the failure of their ammunition. This was 
{\xQ first actual battle of the war. — Id., p. 115. 

165. He reached Cambridge, head-quarters of the 
American army, July 2, 1775, and next day took com- 
mand. — Swinto?i's Condensed U. S. Hist., p. 122. 

166. The army was found to consist of fourteen thou- 
sand undisciplined militia. — Id., p. 123. 

167. On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, 
of Virginia, moved that these United Colonies are, and 
of right ought to be, free and independent States. 
Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, John Adams, of ]\Iassa- 
chu setts, Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania, Roger 
Sherman, of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston, of 
New York, were appointed a committee to draft a De- 
claration of Independence. Jefferson, as chairman, 
prepared the important document. It was reported to 
Congress, and, after being discussed several days and 
slightly amended, was adopted at two o'clock on the 4th 
of July, im.—Qiiackenbos's Hist, of U. S., p. 223. 

168. ''The Stars and Stripes" — the prettiest flag in 
the world — was adopted as the emblem of our nation- 
ality, June 14, im.— Henry's School Hist, of U. S., p. 
63. 

169. "Without the assistance of France in money, 
ships, and troops, and more than all, without her moral 
support, the United States would have succeeded, if at 
all, only after a struggle greatly prolonged. — Seavey's 
Goodrich's Hist, of U. S., p. 131. 

170. The Polish patriots, Thaddeus Kos-ci-us'ko and 



50 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Count Pulas'ki, and the two Germans, Baron De Kalb 
and Baron Steuben. — Swinton's Condensed U. 8. Hist., 
p. 138. 

171. In September, 1780, the treason of Benedict 
Arnold was discovered. This man, an unsuccessful 
horse dealer in Connecticut, had entered the army at 
the beginning of the war and had gained much credit 
on the expedition to Quebec in 1775. He was now dis- 
contented and offered to betray West Point, of which, 
by a display of patriotism, he had gained command. 
Major John Andre, who was the agent of communica- 
tion between Clinton and Arnold, was captured and the 
plan exposed. Arnold escaped to England, but Andre 
was hung as a spy at Tappan, N. Y., October 2d. — Gil- 
man'' s General Hist., p. 347. 

172. 1. Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775; British 
successful. Americans commanded by Parker, British 
by Smith. 2. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775 ; 
British successful. Americans commanded by Prescott, 
British by Howe. 3. Battle of Long Island, August 
27, 1776 ; British victorious. Americans commanded 
by Putnam, British by Howe. 4. Battle of Trenton, 
December 26, 1776 ; Americans victorious. Americans 
commanded by "Washington, British by Eahl. 5. Bat- 
tle of Princeton, January 3, 1777 ; Americans success- 
ful. Americans commanded by Washington, British by 
Mawhood. 6. Battle of Brandywine, September 11, 
1777 ; British successful. Americans commanded by 
Washington, British by Howe. 7. Battle of German- 
town, October 4, 1777 ; British successful. Americans 
commanded by Washington, British by Howe. 8. Battle 
of Saratoga, October 7, 1777; Americans victorious. 
Americans commanded by Gates, British by Burgoyne. 
9. Battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778 ; Americans suc- 
cessful. Americans commanded by Washington, British 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 51 

by Clinton. 10. Battle of Yorktown, October 19, 1781 ; 
Americans victorious. Americans commanded by Wash- 
ington, British by Cornwallis. — Anderson's Gram. School 
U. S. Hist., p. 102. 

173. The surrender of Cornwallis may be considered 
as substantially closing the war. — Seavey's Goodrich's 
Hist, of U. S.,p. 146. 

174. On the 30th of November, 1783, a preliminary 
treaty was signed at Paris by commissioners from the 
two governments, those from the United States being 
John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and Ilenry 
Laurens. On the 19tli of April, 1783, a cessation of 
hostilities was proclaimed in the American army, and 
on the 3d of September following a definite treaty was 
signed at Paris. — Anderson's U. S. Hist., p. 98. 

175. By the terms of the treaty Great Britain ac- 
knowledged the independence of the United States, and 
the boundaries were fixed at the great lakes on the north 
and the Mississippi River on the west. She also con- 
ceded the right to fish on the banks of Newfoundland. 
Florida was returned to Spain. — Id., p. 98. 

176. In the place of the Constitution they had the 
"Articles of Confederation." These Articles of Con- 
federation had been agreed to by Congress in 1777 and 
ratified by all the States in 1781. — Sivinfon's Condensed 
U. S. Hist., p. 153. 

177. The Articles of Confederation gave too little 
power to the general government to enable it to pay the 
debts incurred during the war. Congress could not levy 
taxes ; it could only call upon the States to raise money. 
— Anderson's Junior Class Hist, of U. S., p. 146. 

178. It was adopted September 17, 1787, by a conven- 
tion at Philadelphia, which was called to revise the 
Articles of Confederation. — Henry's School Hist, of U, 
S., p. 72. 



53 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

179. It went into effect on the 4tli of March, 1789.— 
Anderson's Junior Class Hist, of U. 8., p. M7. 

180. The people were divided into two parties — the 
Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. The former fa- 
vored the Constitution and sought to increase the pow- 
ers of the national government, and thus strengthen the 
Union at home and abroad. The latter wished the au- 
thority to rest with the States, opposed the Constitution, 
were jealous of Congress, and feared too much national 
power lest a monarchy might be established, — Barneses 
Brief Hist, of U. S., p. 143. 

181. The leaders of the Federal party were Alexander 
Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. Thomas Jef- 
ferson was the great head of the Anti-Federal or Repub- 
lican party. — Henry's School Hist, of U. S., p. 72. 

182. Philadelphia, 1774-G ; Baltimore, 1776; Phila- 
delphia, 1777 ; Lancaster and York, 1777 ; Philadelphia, 
1778-83; Princeton, 1783; Annapolis, 1783; Trenton, 
1784 ; New York, 1785-d.—Swinto7i's Condensed U. S. 
Hist., p. 160. 

183. On the first "Wednesday in January, 1789, the 
first general election was held under the Constitution. 
A month later the electors met, and George Washington 
was chosen to be the first President of the United States 
without one dissenting voice. John Adams, of Massa- 
chusetts, received the next greatest number of votes, and 
was declared Vice-President. — Eclectic Hist, of U. 8., 
pp. 184, 185. 

184. Washington's Cabinet consisted of Thomas Jef- 
ferson, Secretary of State ; Alexander Hamilton, Secre- 
tary of the Treasury ; Henry Knox, Secretary of "War ; 
and Edmund Randolph, Attorney-General. John Jay 
was appointed Chief -Justice of the United States. — Id., 
p. 189. 

185. "Washington was inaugurated President of the 



rXITED STATES HISTORY. 53 

United States April 30, 1789. The ceremony took place 
at Xew York, then the capital. — Swhitofi's Condensed 
U. S. Hist., p. 162. 

186. New York City was the first seat of our govern- 
ment ; thence it was transferred to Philadelphia ; and 
in 1800 it was removed to "Washington City, in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. — Henry's School Hist, of U. S., 
p. 82. 

187. Appointment of the Cabinet ; United States Bank 
chartered ; capital of United States changed ; Vermont, 
Kentucky and Tennessee admitted into the Union ; In- 
dian war in Ohio ; death of Franklin ; Genet recalled by 
France ; the Whisky Eebellion ; Treaty with England. 
—Harper's Hist, of U. S.,pp. 122, 123, 124. 

18S. The first census or enumeration of the inhabi- 
tants of the United States, was completed in 1791. The 
number of all sexes and color was 3,929,000. The num- 
ber of slaves was 695,000. — Lossinfs School Hist, of U. 
S.,p. 197. 

189. John Adams, the candidate of the Federalists, 
was elected to succeed "Washington. Jefferson, a Eepub- 
lican, was chosen Vice-President. — CamphelVs Concise 
Hist, of U. S., pp. 11 7, 118. 

190. Difficulty with France ; Department of the Xavy 
created ; removal of seat of government to "Washington ; 
Alien and Sedition laws ; death of Washington. — Id. , 
pp. 118, 119. 

191. In December of 1800, Congress for the first time 
assembled in "Washington City, the new capital of the 
nation. Virginia and Maryland had ceded to the United 
States the District of Columbia, a tract ten miles square, 
lying on both sides of the Potomac ; but the part given 
by Virginia was afterward re-ceded to that State. — Bid- 
path's Hist, of U. S., p. 335. 

192. Under the " Alien Law '' the President could ex- 



54 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

pel from the country any alien whom he should judge 
dangerous to the United States. Under the " Sedition 
Law," any person libelling the Government, Congress, or 
the President, might be fined or imprisoned. — CamphelVs 
Concise Hist., p. 119. 

193. He died at Mount Vernon on the 14tli day of 
December, 1799.— M, p. 119. 

194. In the presidential election of 1800 the Federal 
party was defeated. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr 
received an equal number of votes in the Electoral Col- 
lege ; the choice between these two then devolved upon 
the House of Eepresentatives. After a close ballot Jef- 
ferson was declared President-elect, and Burr Vice-Presi- 
dent. — Eclectic Hist, of U. S., p. 204. 

195. The purchase of Louisiana, from France, in 
*1803, for $15,000,000 ; war with Tripoli ; the Hamil- 
ton-Burr duel, July 11, 1804 ; expedition of Lewis and 
Clarke, 1804 ; the first steamboat, Robert Fulton, 1807 ; 
slave trade abolished, 1808. — Henry^s School Hist, of 
U. S., pp. 84, 85. 

196. The fourth President of the United States was 
James Madison of Virginia. He was inaugurated March 
4, 1809. George Clinton of New York was re-elected 
Vice-President. — Swijiton's Condensed Hist, of U. S., 
p. 170. 

197. The election was a triumph of the Republicans, 
who now for the first time began to be called Democrats. 
—Id. p. 170. 

198. The chief event of Madison's administration was 
the declaration of war against England, and the hostil- 
ities which followed for two years. — Id., p. 171. 

199. There were three prominent causes of this war : 
(1) Commercial Injuries ; (2) Impressment of Seamen ; 
(3) Indian Hostilities, incited by British agents. — 
Berard's U. S. Hist. p. 202. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 55 

200. 1. Battle between American Frigate, Constitution 
and British Frigate Guerriere, off coast of Massachu- 
setts, August 19, 1812 ; Americans successful, 2. Bat- 
tle between American sloop. Wasp, and British brig. 
Frolic, off North Carolina, Oct. 18, 1812 ; Americana 
Tictorious. 3. Battle between American sloop, Hornet, 
and British brig, Peacoch, off Demarara, Feb. 24, 1813; 
Americans successful. 4. Battle between nine American 
and six British vessels on Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 1813 ; 
Americans victorious. 5. Battle between fourteen 
American and seventeen British vessels on Lake Cham- 
plain, Sept. 11, 1814 ; Americans successful. — Ander- 
son's Gram. Hist, of U. 8., 2J. 132. 

201. 1. Battle of Thames, Oct. 5, 1812 ; Americans 
commanded by Harrison, British by Proctor ; Americans 
successful 2. Battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25, 1814 ; 
Americans commanded by Brown, British by Drum- 
mond ; Americans successful. 3. Battle of New 
Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815 ; Americans commanded by Jack- 
son, British by Pakenham ; Americans successful. — Id., 
p. 133. 

302. A treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, in Bel- 
gium, December 21, 1814. The treaty said nothing 
about the two chief causes of the war — aggressions upon 
the American commerce and the impressment of seamen. 
— CamphelVs Concise Hist, of U. 8., p. 136. 

203. The fifth President of the United States was 
James Monroe, of Virginia. He was inaugurated March 
4, 1817. The election of President Monroe was not a 
triumph for either the Federalists or Republicans. He 
"was elected almost unanimously by the whole people. — 
8ivintons Condensed Hist, of U. 8., pp. 182, 183. 

204. War with Seminole Indians, Florida ceded to the 
United States, the Monroe Doctrine, Lafayette's visit, 
Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri ad- 



56 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

mitted into the Union, the Missouri Compromise. — 
Henrifs School Hist, of U. 8., pp. 103, 103. 

205. In one of President Monroe's messages, he de- 
clared, " that any attempt by a European nation to gain 
dominion in America, would be considered by the United 
States an unfriendly act." — Id., p. 103. 

206. When the admission of Missouri was proposed, a 
violent debate arose on the question whether it should 
be a slave or a free state. It was finally arranged in 
1820, by an agreement known as the Missouri Com- 
promise, that Missouri might come in as a slave State, 
but that slavery should be prohibited in all other terri- 
tory belonging to the United States west of the Mississ- 
ippi and north of parallel 36° 30' — CampielVs Concise 
Hist, of V. S., p. 138. 

207. Spain agreed to relinquish Florida to the United 
States, on the condition that the American government 
should pay to citizens of the United States five millions 
of dollars, due them from Spain, and give up all claim 
to present State of Texas. — Seavei/'s Ooodrich's Hist, of 
U. S., p. 192. 

208. The sixth President of the United States was 
John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, son of the second 
President. He was inaugurated, March 4, 1825. John 
C. Calhoun, of South Carolina had been chosen Vice- 
President. — Sivinton's Condetised U. S. Hist., p. 184. 

209. There had been no less than six Presidential can- 
didates. As no one had a majority of electoral votes, 
the House of Representatives had the choice, and it chose 
John Quincy Adams. — Id., p. 185. 

210. The deaths of John Adams and Thomas Jef- 
erson, July 4, 1826 ; construction of first railroad 
1827 ; the high protective tariff of 1828. — Henry's School 
Hist, of U. S., pp. 104, 105. 

211. A protective tariff is a high duty laid on manu- 



UNITED STATES HISTORY, 57 

factured articles, for the purpose of protecting and en- 
couraging the manufacture of similar articles at home. — 
Swinton's Condensed U. S. Hist. p. 185, 

212. The seventh President of the United States was 
General Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. He was inau- 
gurated March 4, 1829, The election of Jackson was a 
yictory for the party opposed to the Whigs, represented 
by Adams and Clay. — Siuinton's U. 8. Hist., pp. 185, 186, 

213. Asiatic cholera in 1833 ; Black Hawk's War, 
new tariff law, 1832 ; Nullification Act of South Caro- 
lina ; removal of the Cherokees ; the Texan War ; great 
fire in New York City, December 16, 1835 ; Florida, 
or Seminole War, 1835 ; abolition of the United States 
Bank ; deaths of six eminent men ; admission of Ar- 
kansas and Louisiana. — Henry^s School Hist, of U. S., 
pp. 105, 106, 107, 108, 109. 

214. The eighth President of the United States was 
Martin Van Buren, of New York. He was inaugurated 
March 4, 1837. The election of President Van Buren 
was a triumph for the Democrats. — Swinton's Condensed 
U. S. Hist., p. 188. 

215. *' Panic of '37;" Canadian Rebellion; Passage 
of the Sub-Treasury Bill.— M, p. 189, 

216. The ninth President of the United States was 
William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, The election of 
Harrison was a triumph of the Whig party. He was 
inaugurated March 4, 1841, John Tyler, of Virginia, 
had been elected Vice-President, — Id., pp. 189, 190. 

217. President Harrison had been just a month in 
office when he died. Vice-President Tyler succeeded 
him in office. — Id., p. 190. 

218. Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1841; Veto of the 
United States Bank and resignation of President's 
Cabinet ; Annexation of Texas, 1845. — Eidpath's United 
States Hist., Chart V. 



58 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

219. The eleventh President of the United States was 
James K. Polk, of Tennessee. He was inaugurated 
Marcli 4, 1845. The election was a triumph of the 
Democratic party. — Swintoti's Condensed U. S. Mist., p. 
191. 

220. The most important fact of Polk's administra- 
tion was the Mexican War. — Id., p. 191. 

221. The annexation of Texas led to war with Mex- 
ico ; for, notwithstanding the independence of Texas 
had been acknowledged by the United States, England, 
France, and other governments, Mexico still claimed it 
as a part of her own territory, and considered the act of 
annexation as sufficient cause of war. — Anderson's Pic- 
torial Hist, of U. S., pp. 270, 271. 

222. Three plans comprised the campaigns of 1846 
and 1847 : (1) General Taylor, as before, was to hold the 
line of the Rio Grande. (2) General Kearny, with the 
Army of the West, was to cross tlie Eocky Mountains 
and conquer New Mexico and California. (3) General 
Scott, commander-in-chief, was to advance from Vera 
Cruz to the city of Mexico. — Eclectic Hist, of U. A'., p. 253. 

223. Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, 
May 8 and 9, 1846. Capture of Monterey, Sept. 24, 
1846. Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 23, 1847. Capture 
of the City of Mexico, Sept. 14, 1847. — Harper'' s School 
Hist, of the U. S., pp. 152, 154, 156. 

224. The Americans gained every battle. — Henry's 
School Hist, of U. S., p. 116. 

225. A treaty was concluded, Feb. 2, 1848, at Guada- 
lupe Hidalgo, and peace was proclaimed by President 
Polk the next 4th of July. By this treaty the United 
States gained a vast expanse of territory, extending 
south to the river Gila and west to the Pacific, and 
stipulated to pay Mexico fifteen millions of dollars and 
to assume her debts to American citizens to the amount 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 59 

of over three millions more. — Seaveifs Goodrich s Hist, 
of U. S., p. 218. 

226. The twelfth President of the United States was 
General Zachary Taylor, who had distinguished himself 
in the Mexican War. He was inaugurated March 5 
(the 4th being Sabbath), 1849. Millard Fillmore, of 
New York, had been chosen Vice-President. The elec- 
tion of President Taylor was in some degree a triumph 
of the Whig party. — Swinton's Condensed U. S. Hist., 
p. 198. 

227. President Taylor died July 9, 1850. His admin- 
istration had lasted but little more than sixteen months. 
The Vice-President, Millard Fillmore, became President. 
— Campbell's Concise School Hist, of U. S., p. 157. 

' 228. Admission of California Sept. 9, 1S50 ; the pas- 
sage of the "Omnibus Bill;" Cuban fillibustering ; " 
deaths of John C. Calhoun, March 31, 1850, Henry 
Clay, June 28, 1852, Daniel Webster, October 24, 1852. 
— Henry's School Hist, of U. S.,pp. 125, 126. 

229. It provided 1st. For the admission of California 
as a free State ; 2d. For organizing territorial govern- 
ments in Utah and New Mexico, without any provision 
for or against slavery ; 3d. For establishing the bound- 
ary of Texas, as at present, and paying that State ten 
millions of dollars to relinquish all claim to additional 
territory ; 4th. For prohibiting, not slavery, but the 
slave trade, in the District of Columbia ; 5th. For the 
enactment of a fugitive slave law, to enable masters to 
recover their slaves escaping to a free State. — Camp- 
bells's Concise School Hist, of U. S.,p. 157. 

230. The fourteenth President of the United States 
was Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire. He was in- 
augurated March 4, 1853. The election of President 
Pierce was a triumph for the Democratic Party. — Swin- 
ton's Condensed U. S. Hist., p. 200. 



60 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

231. The repeal of the '^ Missouri Compromise," the 
Civil War in Kansas, and the treaty with Japan were 
the principal events of this administration (1853-1857). 
— Anderson's Popular Hist, of U. 8., p. 251. 

232. The United States acquired 27,000 square miles 
of territory south of the Gila (he'la) river by paying 
Mexico $10,000,000. This transaction is known as the 
Gadsen purchase. — Henry's School Hist, of U. S.,p.l2Q. 

233. In 1854 Stephen A. Douglas introduced in Con- 
gress a bill to organize the Territories of Kansas and 
Nebraska, leaving the question of slavery to be decided 
by a majority of the inhabitants. These Territories were 
north of the line adopted in the Missouri Compromise, 
and the bill was opposed by the ''Free Soil" party, but 
it nevertheless became a law. — Berard's U, S. History^ 
p. 232. 

234. The fifteenth President of the United States was 
James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. He was inaugurated 
March 4, 1857. The election of President Buchanan 
was a triumph of the Democratic Party. — Swinton's 
Condensed U. S. Hist., p. 202. 

235. The " slavery question " was the great topic of 
discussion, and ''John Brown's Raid" intensified the 
discussion. The presidential election was the signal for 
the secession of South Carolina and other Southern 
States, and for the formation of the Southern Confed- 
eracy. Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas were admitted into 
the Union. — Anderson'' s Foptilar Hist, of U. S., p. 305. 

236. The decision, which was delivered by Chief-Jus- 
tice Taney, declared the Missouri Compromise to be un- 
constitutional ; that the Constitution gave slave owners 
the right to hold their slaves in the Territories, and that 
neither negro slaves nor their descendents, slave or free, 
could become citizens of the United States. — CaniplelVs 
Concise School Hist, of U, 8., p. 160. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY, 61 

237. Brown, -who was enthusiastic in his hatred of 
slavery, desired to set free as many slaves as he could ; 
and with this object he and twenty-one associates seized 
the arsenal at Harper's Ferry for the purpose of making 
it a rendezvous. The movement, however, entirely 
failed. Those engaged in it were overpowered by Vir- 
ginia troops, assisted by the national forces ; thirteen of 
them were killed, two escaped, and the rest, including 
Brown, were tried, and, under the laws of Virginia, 
executed. — Anderson^ s Junior Class Hist, of U. 8. pp. 
193, 194. 

238. Abraham Lincoln, inaugurated President of the 
United States March 4, 1861. — Stointon's Condensed U, 
S. Risf., p. 2A3. 

239. The election of Lincoln was the signal for action 
by the leading Secessionists. South Carolina headed 
the movement. A convention met, and on the 20th of 
December, 1860, formally dissolved the connection of 
South Carolina with the Union by an ordinance of se- 
cession, passed by a unanimous vote. — Id., p. 241. 

240. The action of South Carolina was promptly imi- 
tated by several of the other Southern States — in the 
month of January, 1861, by Mississippi, Alabama, 
Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana ; and on the 1st of 
February by Texas — so that at the latter date the seven 
cotton States had withdrawn from the Union. — Id., p. 
241. 

241. On the 4th of February, 1861, a congress com- 
posed of delegates from all these States, except Texas, 
met at Montgomery ; and four days after organized a 
government by the adoption of a '^provisional constitu- 
tion," assuming the title of the ''Confederate States of 
America." — Anderson'' s Hist, of U. S.,p. 159. 

242. By the Great Eebellion.— ^c7, 

243. (1) The different construction put upon the 



G2 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Constitution by the jieople of the North and the South, 
(2) The different systems of labor in the North and the 
South. (3) The Missouri Agitation of 1820-21. (4) 
The Nullification Acts of South Carolina. (5) The 
Annexation of Texas. (6) The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 
(7) The want of intercourse between the people of the 
North and the South. (8) The publication of sectional 
books. (9) Tbe evil influence of demagogues. — Rid- 
path's Hist, of U. S., pp. 416, 417, 418, 419. 

244. The first gun of the war was fired at Fort 
Sumter, South Carolina, at half past four o'clock, Friday 
morning, April 12, 1861. — Barnes's Brief Hist, of 
U. S., p. 216. 

245. The eleven States which formed the Southern 
Confederacy were : South Carolina, Mississippi, Ala- 
bama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, 

-Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee. — He7iry's School 
Hist, of U. S.,p. 133. 

246. Bull Run, Virginia, July 21, 1861 ; Cedar 
Mountain, Virginia, August 9, 1862 ; Second Bull Run, 
Virginia, August 29, 1862 ; Harper's Ferry, Virginia, 
September 15, 1862 ; Fredericksburg, Virginia, Decem- 
ber 13, 1862; Chancellorsville, Virginia, May 2 and 3, 
1863 ; Chickamauga, Georgia, September 19 and 20, 
1863 ; Cold Harbor, Virginia, June 3, IS^^.—Henrif s 
School Hist, of U. S., pp. 150, 151. 

247. Rich Mountain, Va., July 11, 1861 ; Fort Henry, 
Tenn., Feb. 6, 1862 ; Fort Donelson, Tenn., Feb. 16, 

1862 ; Pea Ridge, Mo., March 6, 1862 ; Merrimac and 
Monitor, Va., March 9, 1862 ; New Orleans, La., April 
28, 1862 ; Murfreesboro', Tenn., Dec. 31, 1862; Vicks- 
burg, July 4, 1863 ; Gettysburg, Pa., July 1st and 3d, 

1863 ; Alabama and Kear surge, naval battle, June 15, 
1864; Lost Mountain, Ga., June 15 and 17, 1864 ; At- 
lanta, Ga., Sept. 2, 1864; second battle Cedar creek. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 63 

Va., Oct. 19, 1864; Nashville, Tenn., December 15 and 
16, 1864 ; Petersburg and Eichmond, Va., April 2, 1865. 
—Id., pp. 152, 153. 

248. Shiloh, Tenn., April 6, 1862 ; Fair Oaks, Va., 
May 31, 1862; Savage Station, Va., June 29, 1862; 
Frazier's Farm, Va., June 30, 1862 ; Antietam, Md., 
Sept. 17, 1862; Perry ville^ Ky., Oct. 8, 1862; Wilder- 
ness, Va., May 5 and 6, 1864; Spottsylvania, Va., May 
8 and 12, 1864.— M, p. 153. 

249. On the first of January, 1863, he issued his mem- 
orable emancipation proclamation, giving freedom to all 
the slaves in the Confederate States, excepting in such 
portions as were occupied by the national troops. By 
this more than three millions of slaves were declared free. 
— Anderson's General Hist., p. 390. 

250. On the 9th of April, 1865, Lee, ''overtaken and 
surrounded, surrendered to Grant near Appomattox 
Court House. The surrender of Johnson soon followed, 
and the Great Civil War was at an end. — Anderson's 
Junior Class Hist, of U. 8., p. 223. 

251. The last fight of the war happened near Brazos 
Santiago, Texas, May 13, 1865. — Barnes's Brief Hist, of 
U. S.,p. 275. 

252. In the Union armies probably three hundred 
thousand men were killed in battle or died of wounds or 
disease, while doubtless two hundred thousand more 
were crippled for life. If the Confederate armies suffered 
as heavily, the country thus lost one million able-bodied 
men. — Id., p. 275. 

253. The Union debt, Jan. 1, 18G6, was nearly $2,- 
750,000.— M,;?. 275. 

254. On the night of April 14, 1865, while attending 
the play at Ford's Theatre in Washington, President 
Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth. — Berard's 
U. S. Hist., p. 280. 



64 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

255. Vice-President Andrew Johnson took the oath 
of office on the day of Mr. Lincoln's death and became 
the seventeenth President of the United States. — Eclectic 
Hist of U. S.,p.U4:. 

256. He attempted to remove Edwin M. Stanton, 
Secretary of War. This was considered a violation of 
the Tenure-of-Office bill. The impeachment of the 
President was at last ordered (February 24, 1868). After 
a long and tedious trial, he was acquitted, the two-thirds 
majority necessary for conviction lacking one vote. — 
Barnes's Brief Hist, of U. S.,p. 284. 

257. General IT. S. Grant the eighteenth President 
of the United States was inaugurated March 4, 1869. — 
Swinton's U. S. Hist., p. 292. 

258. Eutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, was inaugurated 
as the nineteenth President of the United States, March 
5, 1877.—/^., p. 295. 

259. An adjustment of the question was reached 
through a high court known as the Electoral Commis- 
sion. This was appointed by Congress and consisted of 
five members from the United States Senate, five from 
the United States House of Eepresentatives, and five from 
the United States supreme court. — Id., p. 296. 

260. James A. Garfield, of Ohio, the twentieth Presi- 
dent of the United States, was inaugurated March 4, 
1881.— 7(^., p. 299. 

261. While in the railroad depot in Washington (July 
2, 1881), President Garfield was shot by a wretch named 
Guiteau. After lingering for nearly eighty days on a bed 
of sickness, the President died September 19. — Id., p. 299. 

262. Vice-President Arthur took the oath of the chief 
magistracy first in his own house in the city of New 
York, on the night of Garfield's death, and on the 21st 
of September, in the capitol at Washington, in the pres- 
ence of the judges of the supreme court. He thus be- 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 65 

came the twenty-first President of the United States. — 
Eclectic Hist of U. S.,p. 344. 

263. Grover Cleveland, of New York, inaugurated 
March 4, 1885.— JS'd 

ANSWERS TO MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

264. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Georgia. 

265. President Jackson inaugurated the practice of 
giving the civil service offices to the adherents of the 
party in power. 

266. The electro-magnetic telegraph was invented by 
Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse. The first telegraph line was 
stretched between Washington and Baltimore in 1844. 

267. In February, 1848, a laborer working in a mill- 
race found particles of gold in the sand. As the news 
spread, men became wild with excitement and flocked 
there by thousands. 

268. By the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu- 
tion. 

269. They were claims of the United States against 
Great Britain for damages done by Confederate cruisers 
that had been built and equipped in England, the most 
destructive of which being the Alabama. The difficulty 
was settled by a Court of Arbitration which met at 
Geneva, Switzerland. Great Britain agreed to pay the 
United States fifteen and a half millions of dollars. 

270. The population of the United States, in 1880, 
was 50,152,866. 

271. Civil Service Reform means the regulation of 
civil appointments which are made to positions in the 
service of the government. 

272. John Adams and his son John Quincy Adams. 

5 



66 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

273. William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Abra- 
ham Lincoln, and James A. Garfield. 

274. Abraham Lincoln and James A. Garfield. 

275. John Tyler, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, 
and Chester A. Arthur. 

276. George "Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James 
Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, Ulysses S. 
Grant. 

277. James Madison, during the war of 1812 ; James 
K. Polk during the Mexican war ; Abraham Lincoln 
during the War of the Eebellion. 

278. In October of 1871, a greater part of the business 
portion of the city of Chicago was burned. The esti- 
mated loss was two hundred millions of dollars. 

279. Alexander Hamilton, Henry Clay, Daniel Web- 
ster, and William H. Seward. 

280. Washington Irving, Nathaniel Hawthorne, 
George Bancroft, and Henry W. Longfellow. 

281. Winfield Scott, William T. Sherman, Philip H. 
Sheridan, and Ulysses S. Grant. 

282. Daniel Webster, Wendell Philips, Edward Ever- 
ett, and Charles Sumner. 

283. John J. Audubon and Louis Agassiz. 

284. It was an act passed by Congress in 1876, and 
provided for the redemption in coin of all legal tender 
notes on and after January 1, 1879. 

285. The Pacific railroad was completed in May, 
1869. 

286. The first locomotive engine in America was put 
upon the Baltimore and Ohio railroad in 1831. 

287. The first successful steamboat was built in 1807 
by Robert Fulton, and made passage from New York to 
Albany. 

288. It was purchased from Eussia, in the year 1867, 
for seven million two hundred thousand dollars. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 67 

S89. It was a proclamation issued May 29, 1865, by 
President Johnson, by which general pardon was ex- 
tended to all persons who were engaged in the Eebellion, 
by taking the oath of allegiance to the United States, 
except certain specified classes. 

290. By the Fourteenth Amendment the negro secured 
the rights of citizenship. 

291. By the Fifteenth Amendment the negro secured 
the right of suffrage. 

292. The teacher should aim to create in the pupil a 
love for history, and, through it, a love for country and 
the perpetuity of its institutions. Its lessons should be 
so turned as to teach the duties of citizenship, and the 
plain fact that whatever of wealth or permanent distinc- 
tion they achieve, sterling characters, industrious hands, 
and well-stored brains must win. 



68 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS. 
MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

1. "What is the universe ? 

2. "What is the sun ? 

3. "What is geography ? 

4. Into what divisions is geography divided ? 

5. Define mathematical geography. 

6. Define political geography. 

7. Define physical geography. 

8. "What is the shape of the earth ? 

9. What are the proofs of this form of the earth ? 

10. "What two motions has the earth ? 

11. "What is the axis of a sphere ? 

12. What is the diameter of a sphere ? 

13. "What is the circumference of a sphere ? 

14. How are the circles of a sphere divided ? 

15. What are the dimensions of the earth ? 

16. What is the weight of the earth ? 

17. What is the specific gravity of the earth ? 

18. What comprises the solar system ? 

19. Name the primary planets in order of their posi- 
tion. 

20. What is the distance of the earth from the sun ? 

21. In what direction do the bodies of the solar sys- 
tem rotate ? 

22. What are the poles of the earth ? 

23. How are the poles distinguished ? 

24. How is direction on the surface of the earth 
named ? 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 69 

25. What are the cardinal and semi-cardinal points of 
the compass ? 

26. What is the compass ? 

27. What is a sidereal day ? 

28. What is a solar day ? 

29. What is the difference in time between a sidereal 
and a solar day ? 

30. Why is the solar day longer ? 

31. Which day is twenty-four hours long ? 

32. What is the velocity of rotation of the surface of 
the earth ? 

33. What is the principal effect of the rotation, or 
diurnal motion, of the earth ? 

34. What is the length of the mean solar, or tropical 
year ? 

35. What is the time of a sidereal year or the time of 
a complete revolution of the earth about the sun ? 

36. What is the extent of the earth's orbit ? 

37. What is the velocity of the earth in its orbit ? 

38. What causes the change of seasons ? 

39. What is the plane of the ecliptic ? 

40. What is the inclination of the axis of the earth to 
the plane of its orbit ? 

41. What other effect is caused by the inclination of 
the axis of the earth ? 

42. How does the length of the longest day vary in 
different latitudes ? 

43. What is the shape of the orbit of the earth ? 

44. At what time is the earth nearest the sun ? 

45. When is the earth at its perihelion ? 

46. When is the earth at its aphelion ? 

47. What is the cause of the earth's revolution ? 

48. Why has the earth's orbit an eliptical shape ? 

49. What is the equator ? 

50. What are meridians ? 



•J-O THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

51. What are the parallels ? 

52. What is the use of parallels and meridians ? 

53. What is longitude ? . 

54. What meridian is generally used as the prime me- 
ridian ? 

55. What is latitude ? 

56. What is the length of a degree of latitude ? 

57. What is the length of a degree of longitude ? 

58. What places on the earth have no longitude ? 
' 59. What is the greatest extent of longitude ? 

60. What places on the earth have no latitude ? 

. 61. What are the climatic parallels ? 

62. What names are given to these climatic circles or 
parallels ? 

63. Where are the tropics located ? 

64. Where are the polar circles located ? 

65. What are zones of climate ? 

66. What names are given to these zones ? 

67. Where is the torrid zone located ? 

68. Where are the temperate zones located ? 

69. How wide are the temperate zones ? 

70. Where are the frigid zones located ? 

71. Why are the polar circles located where they are ? 

72. What is the ecliptic ? 

73. What would be the result if the axis of the earth 
were perpendicular to the ecliptic ? 

74. Why is the ecliptic so called ? 

75. What are the equinoxes ? 

76. How many equinoxes, and what are they called ? 

77. When is the vernal equinox, and why so called ? 

78. When is the autumnal equinox ? 

79. What are the solstices ? 

80. What are they called, and when do they occur ? 

81. What zones only, have the four seasons ? 
'd>)i/. What is a map ? 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPET. 71 

83. According to social conditions, how may the hu- 
man family be classified ? 

84. How are the races of men classified according to 
form, feature and color ? 

85. What are the principal forms of religion in the 
world ? 

86. What kinds of government are in existence among 
civilized nations ? 

87. What is a republic ? 

88. How many kinds of monarchies, and what are 
they? 

89. Mention two absolute monarchies. 

90. What is a State ? 

91. What is the government of a State ? 

92. What is the estimated population of the earth ? 

93. How is the population of the earth distributed 
according to religious belief ? 

94. What are the chief political divisions of North 
America ? 

95. What is the population of North America and 
what races are represented ? 

96. What are some of the natural advantages of 
North America ? 

97. What is the rank of the United States among the 
nations of the world ? 

98. What is its rank in extent of territory ? 

99. What was the population of the United States in 
1880? 

100. What is the general government of the United 
States ? 

101. What departments has this government ? 

102. Of what political divisions does the United States 
consist ? 

103. What is the area of the United States ? 

104. Name the Territories. 



73 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

105. N'ame the five largest cities in the United States 
according to the census of 1880. 

106. With what countries is the foreign commerce of 
the United States chiefly carried on ? 

107. What are the principal exports of the United 
States ? 

108. What are the leading imports of the United 
States ? 

109. What are the leading sea-ports of the United 
States ? 

110. Which is the smallest of the United States ? 

111. Which is the largest of the United States ? 

112. What are the resources of Alaska ? 

113. For what is Indian Territory reserved ? 

114. Which is the leading State in population, wealth 
and commerce ? 

115. Which is the chief mining State ? 

116. What is the District of Columbia ? 

117. How is the District of Columbia governed ? 

118. Describe the system of ''Standard Time " as 
adopted in the United States. 

119. How do the railroads of the United States com- 
pare with other countries ? 

120. How many lines of railroad extend entirely across 
the continent ? 

121. What is the estimated value of the domestic com- 
merce of the United States ? 

122. What is the amount of foreign commerce ? 

123. Name the productions of the different sections 
of the United States. 

124. What is included in British America ? 

125. What is the area of British America ? 

126. What are the divisions of British America ? 

127. AVhat does the Dominion of Canada comprise ? 

128. How is the Dominion governed ? 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 73 

129. By what government is the Island of Newfound- 
land controlled ? 

130. What is the capital of the Dominion of Canada ? 

131. What are the leading industries in Canada ? 

132. What is the population of Canada ? 

133. What is the government of Mexico ? 

134. Name the leading resources of Mexico. 

135. What is the area and population of Mexico ? 

136. What does Central America include ? 

137. What are the chief exports of Central America ? 

138. What do the West Indies include ? 

139. How are the West Indies governed ? 

140. To what nations do they belong ? 

141. Name the leading exports of the West Indies. 

142. What does Danish America include ? 

143. Name the political di"vnsions of South America. 

144. To what races do the inhabitants of South 
America belong ? 

145. How many people in South America ? 

146. Which is the most important country of South 
America ? 

147. What is the capital of Brazil ? 

148. Which is the largest city of South America ? 

149. Name the governments of Europe. 

150. What is the population of Europe ? 

151. Name the six most important countries of 
Europe. 

152. What are the British Isles ? 

153. What comprises the British Empire ? 

154. What is the population of London ? 

155. Name the next five cities of Great Britain and 
Ireland in order of population. 

156. What are the political divisions of Ireland ? 

157. What does the Russian Empire include ? 

158. What is the government of the Russian Empire ? 



74 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

159. Of what is the German empire composed ? 

160. What is the area and population of the German 
empire ? 

161. Name the four largest cities of the German em- 
pire. 

163. What is the condition of education in Germany ? 

163. What is the government and religion of France ? 

164. What is the leading city of France ? 

165. How does France rank in manufactures and com- 
merce ? 

166. What does the kingdom of Denmark comprise ? 
' 167. What is the capital and metropolis of Spain ? 

168. What is the capital and metropolis of Portugal ? 

169. What is the area of Switzerland ? 

170. What is the government of Switzerland ? 

171. Name the principal cities and capital of Switzer- 
land. 

172. Of what is the Austrian empire composed ? 

173. What is the capital and leading city of Austria ? 

174. For what is Italy noted ? 

175. What is the capital of Italy ? 

176. For what is Eome famous ? 

177. By what two great races is Asia mostly occupied ? 

178. AVhat are the prevailing forms of religion in Asia ? 

179. What is the population of the Chinese empire ? 

180. Of what does the Japan empire consist ? 

181. What is the character of the Chinese ? 

182. What arts have long been known in China ? 

183. Name some of the cities of China. 

184. What is the capital and metropolis of Japan ? 

185. What is the chief seaport of Japan ? 

186. What is the government of Japan ? 

187. How does Japan rank in civilization ? 

188. Name the four largest rivers of Africa. 

189. Name the three largest lakes in Africa. 



3IATEE3IATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 75 

190. What is the population of Africa ? 

191. Name the principal political divisions of Africa. 

192. What governments have the countries of Africa ? 

193. For what is Egypt noted ? 

194. What is the government of Egypt? 

195. What is -Liberia ? 

196. What is the Orange Free State ? 

197. What is the area of Aastralia ? 

198. What five English colonies comprise Australia ? 

199. How are these colonies governed ? 

200. Of what does Polynesia consist ? 



76 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 



ANSWERS. 
MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

1. The universe is a general term used to represent 
the entire material creation. — Guyofs Physical Geog., 
p. 2. 

2. Our Sim is the self-luminous center of a group of 
small non-luminous hodies called Planets, which reflect 
his light, and, revolving around him, accompany him 
through space. Our earth is one of these planets, — 
Id., p. 2. 

3. Geography is the science which treats of the earth. 
In its widest sense it embraces all that we know of the 
globe — its form, magnitude, and motions, the successive 
changes it has undergone, its present condition, its 
structure, products, and inhabitants. — Cornell's Physi- 
cal Geog., p. 1. 

4. It is divided into Mathematical, Physical, and Po- 
litical Greography. — Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 5. 

5. Mathematical Geography treats of the shape, size, 
and motions of the earth, the determination of positions 
and distances on its surface, and of its representation by 
globes and maps. — Id., p. 5. 

6. Political Geography treats of the inhabitants of the 
earth, their customs and religions, their industrial pur- 
suits, and forms of government. — Id., pi- 5. 

7. Physical Geography treats of the natural divisions 
of the surface of the earth, of climate, and the distribu- 
tion of plants and animals. — Id., p. 5. 

8. The shape of the earth is nearly that of a sphere ; 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 77 

in exact terms, an oblate spheroid. — Swinton's Gram. 
School Geog., p. 2. 

9. I. When a ship at sea sails from us the hull first 

disappears from vieTv, then the lower parts of the 
masts, and finally their tops. This would not 
be the case if the surface of the water were flat. 
II. "When the earth comes between the sun and the 
moon, it always casts a round shadow on the 
moon. As a sphere is the only body that aliuays 
casts a round shadow, the earth must be spheri- 
cal in form. 

III. Many persons have sailed around the earth. 

IV. Careful measurements upon the surface of the 
earth in different countries prove its rotundity. 
— Complete Geog., Eclectic Series, pp. 5, 6. 

10. The earth has two motions — the diurnal and the 
annual motion. The diurnal motion of the earth is its 
daily rotation on its axis. The annual motion of the 
earth is its revolution around the sun in a period of 365J 
days. — Swinton's Com. School Geog., p. 2. 

11. The axis is that diameter upon which it rotates. 
—Id., p. 2. 

12. The diameter of a sphere is a straight line passing 
through the center and terminating at the circumference. 
—Id.,p.'-i. 

13. The circumference of a sphere is the greatest dis- 
tance around it. — Harper's School Geog. , p. 2. 

14. The circles of a sphere are divided into great cir- 
cles and small circles. A great circle is one that divides 
the sphere into two equal parts. A small circle is one 
that divides the sphere into two unequal parts. — Swin- 
ton's Com. School Geog., p. 2. 

15. The dimensions of the earth, according to Her- 
Bchel, are : 



78 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Equatorial diameter 7,925.65 miles. 

Polar " 7,899.17 " 

Mean " 7,916 " 

Circumference at Equator 24,899 " 

Extent of surface 196,900,278 square miles. 

Solid contents 260,000,000,000 cubic miles. 

— Guyofs Physical Geog.,p. 6. 

16. The absolute weight of the globe is computed at 
not less than 5,852,000,000,000,000,000,000 of tons, a 
weight of which our minds can form no conception. — 
Id., p. 6. 

17. The specific gravity of the terrestrial globe is found 
to be about 5| ; that is, it would require 5| globes of 
water, of the same size, to balance the weight of the 
earth. — Id., p. 6. 

13. The Solar System consists of the sun, the central 
and controlling body, eight primary planets, and twenty 
secondary planets or satellites revolving around their 
several primaries ; more than one hundred and twenty 
asteroids, which are small planets visible only through 
the telescope j and an indefinite number of comets. — Id., 

19. The primary planets, in order of their position, 
are : Mercury, the nearest to the sun ; Venus, the Earth, 
and Mars, composing the first group ; Jupiter, Saturn, 
Uranus, and Neptune, composing the second. — Id., 
p. 3. 

20. The distance of the earth from the sun is 91,430,000 
miles. — Lockyer's Elements of Astronomy, p. 75. 

21. The sun, all the primary planets, and their satel- 
lites, so far as known, rotate from west to east. — Hous- 
ton's Physical Geog., p. 15. 

22. The poles of the earth are the two stationary points 
at the ends of the earth's axis. — Swinton's Complete 
Course in Geog-, P' 3. 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 79 

23. The North Pole is the Pole nearest the North Star. 
The South Pole is the opposite extremity of the earth's 
axis ; it is the point on the earth's surface farthest from 
the North Star.— /d, p. 3. 

24. Direction on the surface of the earth is named 
with reference to the points of the horii^on, or circle 
where the earth and sky seem to meet. — Swinton's Gram. 
School Geog. , p. 3. 

25. The cardinal points are north, south, east, and 
west. The semi-cardinal points are those midway, 
namely, north-east, south-east, south-west, and north- 
west. — Id., p. 3. 

26. It consists of a card representing the horizon, and 
marking the cardinal and semi-cardinal points. Over 
this, and swinging freely on a pivot, is a magnetic needle 
which has the remarkable property of pointing nearly to 
the north. — Id., p. 3. 

27. A sidereal day is the exact interval of time in 
which the earth revolves on its axis. It is found by 
marking two successive passages of a star across the me- 
ridian of any place. This is so absolutely uniform that 
the length of a sidereal day has not varied ^^ of a second 
in 2,000 years. — Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Astronomy, 
pp. 288, 289. 

28. A solar day is the interval between two successive 
passages of the sun across the meridian of any place. — 
Id., p. 289. 

29. The solar day is about four minutes longer than 
the sidereal day. — Id , p. 290. 

30. If the earth were stationary in its orbit, the solar 
day would be of the same length as the sidereal ; but while 
the earth is turning around on its axis it is going forward 
at the rate of 360° in a year, or about 1° per day. When 
the earth has made a complete revolution it must there- 
fore perform a part of another revolution through this 



80 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

additional degree in order to bring this same meridian 
vertically under the sun. — Id., p. 289. 

31. For the convenience of society, it is customary to 
call the solar day 24 hours long, and make the sidereal 
day only 23 hr.. 56 min., 4 sec. in length, expressed in 
mean solar tjme. — Id., p. 290. 

32. The velocity of rotation at any point on the Equa- 
tor is about 1,042 miles per hour. At points distant 
from the Equator, the velocity diminishes, until at the 
poles it is nothing. — Houston'' s Physical Geog., p. 14. 

33. The principal effect of the diurnal motion of the 
earth is the alternation of day and night. — Swinton's 
Gram. School Geog., p. 2. 

34. The mean solar year (tropical year) is the inter- 
val between two successive passages of the sun through 
the vernal equinox. It comprises 365 d., 5 hrs., 48 
min., 49.7 sec. — Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Astronomy, 
p. 294. 

35. The sidereal year is the interval of a complete 
revolution of the earth about the sun, measured by a 
fixed star. It comprises 365 d., 6 hrs., 9 min., 9.6 sec. 
of mean solar time. — Id. , p. 294. 

36. Nearly 600,000,000 miles.— /^., p. 106. 

37. Eighteen miles per second. — Id., p. 106. 

38. The inclination of the earth's axis toward the 
plane of the ecliptic, together with the revolution of the 
earth around the sun, cause the changes of the seasons. 
— Eclectic Series Complete Geog. , p. 7. 

39. The plane of the ecliptic is the plane extending 
from the sun through the earth's orbit. — Id., p. 7. 

40. The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of 
its orbit 23|^ degrees. — Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 6. 

41. The days and nights are not always equal. — 
LocTcyer's Elements of Astronomy, p. 94. 

42. The day at the Equator is uniformly twelve hours ; 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 81 

at 41° 24', fifteen hours ; at 58° 27', eighteen hours ; at 
at 64° 21', twenty-one hours.; at 66"" 32', twenty-four 
hours; at G7° 23', one month ; at 73° 40', three months; 
at the pole, 90°, six months. — Id., p. 95. 

43. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse. The sun is 
in one of the foci, and as this is not in the center of the 
orbit, the earth must be nearer the sun at some parts 
of its revolution than at others. — Houston's Phys, Geog., 
p. 15. 

44. The earth is nearest the sun about January 1st. 
—Id., p. 15. 

45. When the earth is at that part of its orbit which 
is nearest the sun it is said to be at its perihelion. — Id., 
p. 15. 

46. When in that part of its orbit farthest from the 
sun, it is at its aphelion. — Id., p. 15. 

47. The earth's movement through space is caused 
solely by a projed He force imparted to it when it- first 
began its separate existence — probably when first sepa- 
rated from the nebulous sun. From its inertia it would 
move for an indefinite time in one direction, but, by 
the sun's attraction it is constantly changing its direc- 
tion by falling toward the sun ; and thus is produced 
the curved shape of its orbit. — Id., p. 10. 

48. It is owing to the attractive influence of the 
neighboring planets, which modify the effect of the 
sun's attraction. — Id., p. 15. 

49. The Equator is the great circle midway between 
the poles. It divides the earth into Northern and 
Southern Hemispheres. — Swinton's Gram. Scliool Geog., 

50. Meridians are great circles encompassing the globe 
from north to south, intersecting at the poles and cross- 
ing the Equator at right angles. — Guyofs Phys, Geog., 

p. 7. 

6 



82 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

51. The parallels are small circles parallel to the 
equator. — Id., p. 7. 

52. The parallels and meridians, which are conceived 
as intersecting at every point on the earth's surface, are 
employed in determining the geographical location of 
places. — Id. , p. 7. 

53. Longitude is distance east or west from some 
chosen meridian, called the prime meridian. — Swinton's 
Gram. School Geog., p. 3. 

54. The meridian of the British Eoyal Observatory at 
Greenwich, near London, Eng., is the prime meridian 
generally used. The meridian of Washington also is 
used in our country. — Id., p. 3. 

55. Latitude is the distance of a place from the Equa- 
tor, measured upon the meridians. It is reckoned from 
the Equator to each pole ; hence there are 90" of north 
latitude and 90° of south latitude. — Guyofs Phys. 
Geog. , p. 7. 

56. The length of a degree of latitude is 69^ miles, or 
-^ part of the circumference of the earth. Near the 
poles the degrees are slightly longer, owing to the oblate- 
ness of the sphere. — Id., p. 7. 

57. The length of a degree of longitude at the Equator 
is 691^ miles. As the parallels constantly diminish in 
circumference from the Equator to the poles, the length 
of a degree of longitude — ^-^ part of each parallel — must 
decrease in like manner. — Id., p. 7. 

58. At the poles, where all the meridians meet, longi- 
tude ceases. — Id., p. 7. 

All places on the prime meridian have no longitude. 
—Ed. 

59. There are 180° of east longitude and 180° of west 
longitude. — Guyofs Phys. Geog., p 7. 

60. All places on the Equator have no latitude. 
—Ed. 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL OEOORAPIIY. 83 

61. Four parallels serve not only to determine position, 
but also to mark certain important climatic boundaries, 
hence they may be distinguished as climatic parallels. — 
Guyofs Phtjs. Geofj., p. 7. 

62. The climatic circles are : the Tropic of Cancer, the 
Tropic of Capricorn, and the two Polar Circles. — Swin- 
ton's Complete Course in Geog., p. 7. 

63. The Tropic of Cancer is a parallel 23|° to the 
north of the Equator ; the Tropic of Capricorn, a par- 
allel 23i° to the south of it.— 7^., p. 7 

64. The Polar Circles are the Arctic Circle, 23|° from 
the North Pole, and the Antarctic Circle, 23^° from the 
South Pole.— /r/., p. 7. 

65. The Zones of climate are belts of the earth's sur- 
face enclosed by these circles, as drawn on maps and 
globes. — Id., p. 7. 

66. The Zones are : one Torrid Zone, two Temperate 
Zones, and two Frigid Zones. — Id., p. 7. 

67. The Torrid Zone is between the Tropic of Cancer 
and the Tropic of Capricorn, and extends 23^° each 
side of the Equator. — Id., p. 7. 

68. The Temperate Zones lie between the Tropics and 
the Polar Circles — the North Temperate Zone between 
the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle, and the 
South Temperate Zone between the Tropic of Capricorn 
and the Antarctic Circle. — Id., p. 7. 

69. Each Temperate Zone is 43° wide. — Maury's 
Manual of Geog., p. 9. 

70. The North Frigid Zone is the space that lies be- 
tween the Arctic Cirole and the North Pole. The South 
Frigid Zone is between the Antarctic Circle and the 
South Pole. Each of these zones is 23^° wide. — Id., p. 9. 

71. Their position is fixed by the inclination of the 
earth's axis 23 1° toward the plane of its orbit. — GuyoVa 
Phys. Geog., p. 7. 



84 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

72. The ecliptic is a great circle whose plane coincides 
with that of the earth's orbit. — Id., p. 7. 

73. The sun would rise and set every day at the same 
points on the horizon, and pass through the same circle 
in the heavens, while the days and nights would be 
equal the year round. There would be near the Equator 
a fierce torrid heat, while north and south the climate 
would melt away into temperate spring, and, lastly, into 
the rigors of a perpetual winter. — Steele's Fourteen 

Weeks in Astronomy, p. 120. 

74. This circle is so called because solar and lunar 
eclipses can only take place when the moon is very near 
its plane. — Loomis^s Treatise on Astronomy, p. 59. 

75. They are the times of the year at which the sun's 
vertical rays fall exactly on the Equator — Id., p. 59. 

76. There are two equinoxes, the vernal and the au- 
tumnal. — Id., p. 59. 

77. About the 22d of March each year, the sun at 
noon is directly over the Equator. This time is called 
the Vernal Equinox, because it is the beginning of our 
spring, and the days and nights are of equal length. — 
Eclectic Course Complete Geog., p. 7. 

78. About the 22d of September, when the days and 
nights are again equal. — Id., p. 7, 

79. The solstices are the two points in the ecliptic 
most distant from the Equator ; or they may be con- 
sidered to mark the sun's furthest declination, north 
and south of the equinoctial. — Steele's Fourteen Weeks 
in Astronomy, p. 41. 

80. The Summer Solstice occurs about the 22d of 
June ; the Winter Solstice occurs about the 22d of De- 
cember. — Id., p. 41. 

81. The four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and 
winter, are found only in the Temperate Zones. — 
Harper's School Geog., p. 4. 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 85 

82. A map is a representation of the whole or a part 
of the earth's surface on a plane. — Id., p. 4. 

83. The human family maybe divided according to 
the different social conditions of men, into four classes, 
viz. : the savage, barbarous, civilized and enlightened. — 
Maury^s Manual of Geog., p. 16. 

84. Men are also classified, according to form, feature, 
and color, into five great races : the Caucasian, the 
Mongolian, the Malay, the American Indian, and the 
Ethiopian. — Id., p. 16. 

85. The principal forms of religion are — Christianity, 
Judaism, Mohammedanism, Buddhism, Brahminism. 
and the religion of the Guebres (Gue'-berz). — Id., p. 17. 

86. Civilized governments of the present day may be 
reduced to two kinds — the Eepublican and the Mon- 
archial.— Id., p. 17. 

87. A Eepublic is a State in which the President, or 
the head of the government is elected by the people to 
serve for a certain time. The laws are made by repre- 
sentatives also chosen by the people. — Id., p. 17. 

88. Of monarchies there are two kinds : Absolute, in 
■which the will of the sovereign is the supreme law of the 
land ; and Limited, in which the laws are made by repre- 
sentatives of the people. — Id., p. 17. 

89. Kussia and Turkey are absolute monarchies ; all 
the other monarchies of Europe are limited. — Id., p. 17. 

90. A State is the whole body of a people united under 
one authority. The term *^ State" is also applied to the 
subdivisions of the United States. — Eclectic Series, Com- 
plete Geog., p. 17. 

91. The government is the authority which rules a 
State.— /^.,jt?. 17. 

92. The population of the earth is estimated at about 
1,439,000,000.— /<?., p. 15. 

93. The number of those believing in the different re- 



86 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ligions, respectively, has been estimated as follows : 
Buddhists, 503,000,000 ; Christians, 375,000,000 ; Pa- 
gans, 200,000,000 ; Brahmins, 177,000,000; Mohamme- 
dans, 170,000,000; Jews, 7,000,000.— /^., ja. 17. 

94. The chief divisions of North America in the order of 
their importance, are : the Republic of the United States, 
the Dominion of Canada, the Republic of Mexico, the five 
small Republics of Central America, and the Islands of 
the West Indies, Greenland, and Iceland. — Id., p. 20. 

95. North America has nearly 74,000,000 inhabitants. 
They belong to four races — the Caucasian, the Ethiopian, 
the American, and the Mongolian. — Id., jo. 20. 

96. Among the natural advantages of North America 
are : (1) It lies mainly in the Temperate Zone ; (2) It has 
not, like other grand divisions, impassable mountain 
barriers or deserts ; (3) It possesses a vast area of fertile 
soil, and is rich in the most valuable metals and miner- 
als ; (4) It has numerous navigable rivers and lakes, and 
fine harbors, which afford excellent facilities for com- 
merce. — Swinton's Gram. School Geog., p. 17. 

97. The United States is the leading republic in the 
world, and ranks as one of the five most populous, pow- 
erful, wealthy, and progressive nations. — Id., p. 27. 

98. In extent of territory the United States ranks 
fourth among the great powers, being surpassed only by 
the Chinese, British, and Russian empires. — Id., p. 27. 

99. The population, by the census of 1880, was over 
fifty millions (50,155,783).— M, p. 27. 

100. The general or federal government of the United 
States is republican in form. — Id., p. 27. 

101. It has three departments — the legislative, the ex- 
ecutive, and judicial. — Id., p. 27. 

102. The United States consists of thirty-eight States, 
nine Territories, the District of Columbia, and Alaska. 
—Id., p. 27. 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 87 

103. The area of the United States is rather more than 
3,000,000 square miles, not including Alaska, which 
contains over 500,000 square miles. — Harper's School 
Geog., p. 24. 

104. Dakota, Indian Territory, Montana, Wyoming, 
New Mexico, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and Washington 
Territory.— /(/., JO. 29. 

105. Ne^ York, 1,206,299 ; Philadelphia, 847,170 ; 
Brooklyn, 566,663 ; Chicago, 503,185 ; Boston, 362,839. 
—Id, p. 32. 

106. The foreign commerce of the United States is 
chiefly with England, Germany, and France, in Europe ; 
with Canada, the West Indies, and Brazil in America ; 
and with China and Japan in Asia. — Id., p. 34. 

107. Tlie principal exports are cotton, breadstuffs, 
provisions, petroleum, gold, and tobacco. The greater 
part, especially of the cotton, goes to England. South 
America and West Indies take large amounts of provis- 
ions, flour, lumber, and other manufactures. — Id., p. 34. 

108. The leading imports, and the principal countries 
from which they come, are : dry goods from England 
and France ; sugar from the West Indies ; coffee from 
Brazil ; hides from South America ; tea from China and 
Japan ; and iron and tin from England. — Id., p. 34. 

109. At least two thirds of all the imports, and nearly 
one half of all the exports of the United States, pass 
through the port of New York. Other leading seaports 
are Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and 
San Francisco. — Id., p. 34. 

110. Khode Island is the smallest State in the Union, 
but it is the most thickly settled. — WarrerCs Brief 
Course in Geog., p. 25. 

111. Texas is the largest State in the Union. It is 
about thirty-two times the size of Massachusetts. — 
Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 48. 



88 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

112. The resources of this country are in the fish 
which swarm in its waters, in its fur-bearing animals, 
in its forests and its mines. The seal-fisheries are the 
most valuable in the world. — Warren's Brief Course in 
Oeog., p. 43. 

113. Indian Territory is reserved by our Government 
as a home for various tribes of Indians which have been 
removed from other parts of the country. — Id., p. 43. 

114. New York is the first in the Union in popula- 
tion, wealth, and commerce. — Harper's School Geog., p. 
42. 

115. Pennsylvania is the chief mining State in the 
Union. — Id., p. 43. 

116. This District is a Territory of the United States, 
occupying an irregular area of 64 square miles on the 
Maryland side of the Potomac. Its national importance 
arises from the fact that it is the political center of our 
country, containing WasMngtoii, the capital of the 
United States. — Swintori's Complete Course in Oeog., 
p. 44. 

117. The District had formerly a territorial govern- 
ment, but at present it is governed by Congress directly, 
through a Committee on the District of Columbia. — 
Id., p. 44. 

118. The country has been divided into four great 
time-belts, each about 15° wide. The local time of the 
central meridian of each belt is made the Standard Time 
for the entire belt. The meridians determined upon 
are the 75th, 90th, 105th, and 120th west from Green- 
wich ; and the time-belts are known as the Eastern, Cen- 
tral, Mountain, and Pacific. Eastward of the United 
States is another time-belt known as the Inter-Colonial, 
having the time of the 60th meridian. As the merid- 
ians by which the time of the belts is determined are 
15° apart, it is clear that the difference of time in the 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 89 

different belts -will be marked by exact hours, for the 
simple reason that the sun apparently passes over 15° of 
longitude every hour. — Maury^s Manual of Geog., p.QQ. 

119. The railroads of the United States have a much 
greater total lengtli than those of any other country of 
the world. — Eclectic Series, Complete Geog., p. 25. 

120. At least four lines extend entirely across the 
continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. — Id. 
p. 25. 

121. The domestic commerce of the United States 
amounts to $12,000,000,000 annually.— /<i., p. 60. 

122. The foreign commerce of the United States 
amounts to 11,600,000,000 annually.— 7fZ., p. 60. . 

123. The Central States supply most of the grain and 
meat ; the Northern States supply grain, lumber, cop- 
per, and iron ore; the Southern States supply cotton, 
rice, and tobacco ; New England supplies manufactures 
of every kind, but principally those of cotton, cloth, 
boots, shoes, and such *' notions" as buttons and pins; 
the Middle States supply coal, iron, and petroleum, be- 
sides a great variety of manufactures ; Colorado and the 
territories supply gold, silver, and cattle ; California 
and Oregon supply gold, wheat, and wool. — Id., p. 60. 

124. British America includes all of North America 
north of the United States, with the exception of 
Alaska and Greenland. — Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 
67. 

125. It covers about as much surface as the United 
States ; but the larger part of it is too far north, and 
consequently too cold, to be productive or inhabitable 
by a civilized people. — Swiiiton's Complete course in 
Geog., p. 81. 

126. British America consists of the Dominion of 
Canada and the Province of Newfoundland. — Warren's 
Brief Course in Geog., p. 19. 



90 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

127. The Dominion of Canada comprises the prov- 
inces of Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, 
Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward's Island, 
together with five districts and two territories. — Id., p. 
19. 

128. The Governor-General is appointed by the Brit- 
ish Sovereign. Parliament consists of a Senate and 
House of Commons. The Senators are appointed by 
the Governor-General. The members of the House of 
Commons are chosen by the people. Each province has 
an independent local government. — Eclectic Series, 
Complete Geog., p. 61. 

129. The Island of Newfoundland forms a British 
province separate from the Dominion of Canada. — 
Swinton's Gram. Scliool Geog., p. 21. 

130. Ottawa, in the Province of Ontario, is the capi- 
tal. — Id., p. 21. 

131. The industries of the people are mainly agricul- 
ture, lumbering, ship-building, fishing, and commerce. 
— Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 67. 

132. The population is nearly four and a half million, 
or about the same as that of the State of Pennsylvania. 
— Eclectic Series, Complete Geog., p. 61. 

133. It is a Federal Republic, comprising twenty- 
eight states and the Territory of Lower California. — 
Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 72. 

134. Mexico is rich in gold, silver, quicksilver, and 
other metals ; and the soil is generally fertile. — Swin- 
ton's Complete Course in Geog., p. 84. 

135. The area of Mexico is about one-eighth less than 
that of the United States east of the Mississippi. The 
population is about 10,000,000. — Harper's Scliool Geog., 
p. 71. 

136. It includes five independent republics, which 
are really military despotisms : viz., Guatemala, Hon- 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 91 

duras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Kica, 
together Avith Belize, or British Honduras, which is a 
colony of Great Britain. — Id., p. 71. 

137. Coffee, rubber, indigo, cochineal, cabinet woods, 
and dye woods are the chief exports. — Id., p. 73. 

138. The West Indies include about 1,000 islands, 
forming three divisions — the Greater Antilles, the Lesser 
Antilles, and the Bahamas. — Warren'' s Brief Course in 
Geog.,p. 18. 

139. Most of the West India Islands belong to Euro- 
pean nations. — Id., p. 18 

140. Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain. Jamaica, 
the Bahamas and most of the Lesser Antilles belong to 
Great Britain. The Island of Hayti contains two inde- 
pendent negro republics — San Domingo, and Hayti. — 
Id., p. 18. 

14L The leading exports are sugar, molasses, and 
rum, coffee, cocoa, and tobacco ; mahogany, indigo, 
and dye stuffs ; spices and tropical fruits. — Id., p. 18. 

142. Danish America includes Greenland and Ice- 
and. They belong to the kingdom of Denmark. — Swin- 
ton's Gram. ScJiool Geog., p. 19. 

143. South America consists of nine Republics : 
Venezuela, United States of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, 
Bolivia, Chili, the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, and 
Paraguay ; the Empire of Brazil, and the colonies of 
British, Dutch and French Guiana. — Warren's Brief 
Course in Geog., p. 49, 

144. The inhabitants are whites, Indians, negroes, and 
a mixture of these races, the whites forming the smallest 
part of the population. — Id., p. 49. 

145. There are about 30,000,000 of people in South 
America. — Eclectic Series, Complete Geog., p. 69. 

14fi. The empire of Brazil is the largest and most 
populous State of South America. It is almost as large 



93 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

as the United States. Agriculture is the principal occu- 
pation. — Id., p. 70. 

147. Rio Janeiro is the capital of Brazil. — Id., p. 70. 

148. Buenos Ayres, the capital of the Argentine Re- 
public, is the largest city in South America. — Id., p. 71. 

149. Europe contains four empires, Russia, Turkey, 
Germany, and Austria ; two republics, France and 
Switzerland ; twelve independent kingdoms, Norway, 
Sweden, Great Britain and Ireland, Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, Greece, Roumania, Servia, Denmark, Belgium, 
and the Netherlands ; and one independent principality, 
Montenegi-o ; Russia and Turkey are absolute ; Germany, 
Austria, and the twelve kingdoms are limited monar- 
chies. — Harper's School Geog., p. 88. 

150. The total population is estimated at 316 millions, 
three-fourths of it being in Western Europe, It is 
nearly all Caucasian. — Id., p. 88. 

151. The most powerful and important countries of 
Europe are Great Britain, Germany, France, Austria- 
Hungary, Russia and Italy. — Warren's Brief Course in 
Geog., p. 54. 

152. The British Isles consist of Great Britain and 
Ireland, together with numerous small adjacent islands. 
— Swinton's Complete Course in Geog. , p. 95. 

153. The name British Empire is applied to the King- 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland, and its numerous 
colonies and possessions in various parts of the world. 
One-sixth of the entire human race, scattered over 
nearly one-sixth of the globe, is under British rule. — 
Id., p. 95. 

154. Its population is about three and one half mil- 
lions. It is the largest and wealthiest city on the globe. 
—Id., p. 9G. 

155. Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, 
and Sheffield.— M, p. 98. 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOORAPHT. 93 

156. It is divided into four provinces, — Ulster, Lein- 
ster, Munster, and Connaught, — and these are subdi- 
vided into thirty-two counties. — Id., p. 98. 

157. The Russian Empire embraces about one-sixth 
of the land of the globe, and includes European Russia 
and immense possessions in Asia. It is the largest state 
in the world. — Eclectic Series, Complete Geog., p. 75. 

158. The government is an absolute monarchy, under 
an emperor called the Czar, who is head of both church 
and state. — Swinton's Gram. School Geog., p. 83. 

159. The German Empire is a confederation of twen- 
ty-six states, the chief of which are the kingdoms of 
Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and "Wurtemburg. — Id., 
p. SI. 

160. The area of Germany is nearly the same as that 
of France, 208,000 square miles ; its population is 41,- 
000,000. — Swinton's Complete Geog., p. 101. 

161. Berlin (900,000), Hamburg (350,000), Dresden 
(210,000), Breslau (180,000).— /(/., p. 101. 

162. In education Germany is the foremost country of 
Europe. It has a fine system of public schools, and 
education is compulsory. The numerous universities 
are the largest and most complete in the world. — Id., p. 
101. 

163. France is a Republic. The people enjoy relig- 
ious freedom ; but the majority are Roman Catholics. — 
Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 97. 

164. Paris, the finest capital and the most splendid 
city in the world. — Id., p. 97. 

165. In manufactures France ranks next to England. 
In foreign commerce France is second to England 
alone. Its domestic trade is very extensive. — Id., p. 97. 

166. The Kingdom of Denmark comprises the penin- 
sula of Jutland, the islands east of it, and the Faroe 
Islands. — Eclectic Complete Geog., p. 81. 



94 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. ' 

167. Madrid is the capital and metropolis of Spain. — 
Id. p. 81. 

168. Lisbon is the capital and metropolis of Portugal. 
—Id., p. 81. 

169. The area of Switzerland is about one third that 
of New York. — Swinton's Gram. School Geog., p. 79. 

170. Switzerland is a federal republic, comprising 
twenty-two small states called cantons. — Id., p. 79. 

171. Geneva, Zurich, and Basle are the largest cities. 
Berne is the capital. — Id., p. 79. 

172 The Au&trian Empire, or the Austro-Hungarian 
Monarchy (its official designation since 1868), consists 
of two main divisions, — Austria proper and the king- 
dom of Hungary, together with a number of other states 
and provinces under the rule of the Emperor of Austria. 
— Swinton's Complete Geog., p. 103. 

173. Vienna is the capital and the finest city of Cen- 
tral Europe. — Id., p. 102. 

174. Italy was the seat of the Ancient Koman Em- 
pire, and the land of Galileo, Dante, and Tasso. It is 
famous for bright skies, and beautiful scenery, its de- 
licious fruits, magnificent public buildings, picture gal- 
leries, and works of art. — Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 
94. 

175. Rome is the capital of Italy. — Id., p. 94. 

176. It is the residence of the Pope, who is the head 
of the Roman Catholic Church. Its ruins, its churches, 
its art galleries and museums, its traditions and associa- 
tions, make it the most famous city in the world. — Id., 
p. 94. 

177. Asia is occupied mainly by two great races : 
the Caucasian, which inhabits Western Asia and India ; 
and the Mongolian, which is found in Eastern Asia. — 
Id., p. 105. 

178. Buddhism, Brahminism, and Mohammedanism 



MATHEMATICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 95 

are the prevailing forms of religion throughout Asia. — 
Id., p., 105. 

179. The total population of the Chinese Empire is 
estimated at 425,000,000. This is the densest popula- 
tion in the world. — Harper's School Geog., p. 105. 

180. The Empire of Japan is composed of islands, 
the largest of which are Niphon, Yesso or Jesso, Kin- 
sin, and Sikoke. — Monteith's Comprehensive Geog., p. 
81. 

181. The Chinese are industrious, patient, economical 
and ingenious. — Maury's Manual of Geog., p. 108. 

182. They invented gunpowder and the mariner's 
compass, and have understood the art of printing, paper- 
making, and manufacturing "China" ware for ages. — 
Id., p. 108. 

183. Peking, the capital ; Hankow, Shanghai and 
Canton. — Id., p. 108. 

184. Tokio is the capital and metropolis. — Eclectic 
Complete Geog., p. 89. 

185. Yokohama is the chief seaport. — Id., p. 89. 

186. The government is a limited monarchy. The 
ruler is called the " Mikado." — Id., p. 89. 

187. Japan is the most highly civilized of the Mon- 
golian nations. — Id., p. 89. 

188. The Nile, the Congo, the Niger, and the Zam- 
bezi, are the largest rivers of Africa. — Id., p. 93. 

189. Albert Nyanza, Victoria Nyanza, and Tangan- 
yika. — Swinton's Gram. School Geog., p. 99. 

190. The population of Africa is estimated at two 
hundred millions. Of these the greater part are negroes 
divided into various tribes. — Id., p. 99. 

191. The principal political divisions of Africa are the 
Barbary States, Egypt and Abyssinia, the Sahara, Central 
Africa, Soudan, and the European colonies. — Id., p. 99. 

192. All the native governments are despotisms, and, 



96 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

except in Egypt and the Barbary States, are of the rud- 
est and simplest description. — Harper^ s School Geog., p. 
117. 

193. Egypt is celebrated for its magnificent pyramids, 
temples, obelisks, statues and tombs, built more than 
four thousand years ago. — Monteith's Comprehensive 
Geog., p. 84. 

194. Egypt forms a part of the Turkish empire, and 
is ruled by a Viceroy called the Khedive. — Swmton's 
Gram. School Geog., p. 100. 

195. Liberia is a small, independent republic, settled 
by emancipated American negroes. — Maury's Manual of 
Geog., p. 119. 

196. The Orange Free State is a small Dutch settle- 
ment rich in minerals and farming lands. — Id,, p. 120. 

197. The continent of Australia has an area nearly 
equal to that of the United States. — Id., p. 122. 

198. They are, in order of population : Victoria, 
New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland, and 
Western Australia. — Id., p. 122. 

199. Each of these colonies is ruled by a governor ap- 
pointed by the government of England, and a legislative 
council and assembly elected by the people. They are 
independent one of another. — Id., p. 122. 

200. Polynesia consists of a multitude of small islands 
in the Pacific Ocean, north and east of Australasia. — 
Warren's Brief Course in Geog., p. 77. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 97 



QUESTIONS. 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

1. Of what does Physical Geography treat ? 

2. What distinguishes Physical Geography from Ge- 
ology ? 

3. What are the natural subdivisions of Physical Ge- 
ography ? 

4. What is the nebular hypothesis concerning the ori- 
gin of the solar system ? 

5. What is a nebula ? 

6. What was the condition of the earth at a remote 
period ? 

7. What is the proof of this condition ? 

8. What is the present condition of the interior of the 
earth ? 

9. How thick is the earth's crust ? 

10. What are the evidences of internal heat ? 

11. What average rate of increase of temperature is 
shown by these observations in mines, etc. ? 

12. If this average rate continues without interrup- 
tion, what do we conclude ? 

13. Do all philosophers agree concerning the fluidity 
of the central mass of the earth ? 

14. How many simple substances, or elements, exist 
in matter ? 

15. Which of these mainly compose the earth's crust ? 

16. AYhat are some of the lessons taught by Geology ? 

17. What is rock? 

18. With reference to origin, how are rocks classified ? 

7 



98 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

19. With reference to condition and appearance, how 
are rocks classified ? 

20. With reference to contents how are rocks classi- 
fied ? 

21. How classified with reference to time of forma- 
tion ? 

22. What are fossils ? 

23. How is the relative age of various rocks deter- 
mined ? 

24. What is the basis for dividing the history of the 
globe into geologic periods, or ages ? 

25. Name the Geologic Ages. 

26. Into what five classes may the animal kingdom 
be divided ? 

27. What agencies have produced changes in the 
earth's crust ? 

28. How were the land surfaces probably formed ? 

29. What evidences that the sea and land have fre- 
quently changed places ? 

30. What are some of the evidences that different cli- 
mates have succeeded one another ? 

31. What is the proportion of land to the the water 
surface of the globe ? 

32. Name the continents. 

33. What is a plateau or table-land ? 

• 34. Where are the land masses of the globe situ- 
ated ? 

35. What influence have mountain systems upon the 
continents to which the belong ? 

36. What various names are given to plains ? 

37. What is the typical structure of a continent ? 

38. What is the position of the main axis in every 
continent ? 

39. What is the highest land on the earth's surface ? 

40. What is the lowest land of the earth's surface ? 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPEY. 99 

41. Give the elevation of four of the great plateaus of 
the world. 

42. What are lakes, and into what two classes are they 
divided ? 

43. Name the largest lakes of the world, 

44. What causes the water of some lakes to be salt ? 

45. Name the most extensive salt lakes. 

46. What is a river system ? 

47. What are some of the offices of rivers ? 

48. What is the basin or valley of a river ? 

49. What are deltas and estuaries ? 

50. Upon what does the amount of water carried by 
a river depend ? 

51. What is the cause of intermittent springs ? 

52. Describe an artesian well. 

53. What is a volcano ? 

54. Where are volcanoes mostly found ? 

55. What is the probable cause of volcanoes ? 

56. What is the number of volcanoes ? 

57. What two cities were buried by an eruption of 
Vesuvius, about eighteen hundred years ago ? 

58. Where is the most active volcanic region at pres- 
ent ? 

59. Name some of the noted volcanoes. 

60. What are earthquakes ? 

61. What kinds of motion are observed in earthquakes? 

62. What is the probable cause of earthquakes ? 

63. Is there a connection between volcanoes and earth- 
quakes ? 

64. What is the duration of an earthquake ? 

65. What are the sources of danger from earthquakes? 

66. Name some noted earthquakes. 

67. Define climate. 

68. What is the atmosphere ? 

69. Define Meteorology. 



100 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

70. Of what is atmospheric air composed ? 

71. "What is the height of the atmosphere ? 

72. How is the weight of the atmosphere measured ? 

73. Describe the barometer. 

74. Upon what does the climate of a country mainly 
depend ? 

75. What other circumstances modify climate ? 

76. What are isothermal lines ? 

77. Why does the temperature of the earth decrease 
from the Equator to the poles ? 

78. Why do not the British Isles and Labrador, which 
lie between the same parallels, have the same climate ? 

79. What are winds ? 

80. How does difference in heat destroy the equilib- 
rium of the atmosphere ? 

81. How may winds be classified ? 

82. What does each of these classes include ? 

83. What are the trade winds ? 

84. What gave the trade winds their name ? 

85. What causes the diurnal land and sea breezes ? 

86. What are the monsoons ? 

87. What causes whirlwinds ? 

88. Why does the outside of a pitcher of cold water 
become moist on a warm day ? 

89. What is hoar-frost ? 

90. How does water-vapor become diffused^ through 
the atmosphere ? 

91. What are clouds ? 

92. What is rain ? snow ? hail ? 

93. How does freezing affect the volume of water ? 

94. What advantages come from this curious excep- 
tion in the physical properties of water ? 

95. What are glaciers ? 

96. How are glaciers formed ? 

97. Where are the most extensive glaciers found ? 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 101 

98. How are icebergs formed ? 

99. What are moraines ? 

100. What evidences of glaciers in New England and 
other parts of North America ? 

101. What is meant by the sea ? 

102. What are the offices of the sea ? 

103. What is the composition of sea water ? 

104. What effect has the saltness upon the freezing 
temperature of the water ? 

105. What is the greatest depth of the sea ? 

106. What movements have the waters of the ocean ? 

107. What are waves ? 

108. What are tides ? 

109. What causes the tides ? 

110. Explain spring and neap tides. 

111. What determines the height of tides ? 

112. Name some localities of high tides. 

113. What is the cause of ocean currents ? 

114. What is the nature of these currents in high 
-latitudes ? 

115. What modifies the direction of these currents ? 

116. What is the Gulf Stream ? 

117. Describe the Gulf Stream. 

118. What is the temperature of the Gulf Stream ? 

119. What effect has the Gulf Stream on the climate 
of Northern Europe ? 

120. How are coral reefs formed ? 

121. What is the common form of coral islands ? 

122. Describe the reef-building polyps. 

123. What is meant by the flora of any region of 
country ? 

124. What is meant by the /aw w« f 

125. What determines t\\Q flora of a country ? 

126. What determines the distribution of animal life ? 

127. What is the number of plant-species ? 



102 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

128. What characterizes vegetation in tropical coun- 
tries ? 

129. What plants furnish material for clothing ? 

130. What is Ethnology ? 

131. What are the three principal theories as to the 
origin of the human race ? 

132. What are the characteristics of the white race ? 

133. What is civilization ? 

134. What nations at present are most highly civil- 
ized ? 

135. What is the estimated number of the earth's in- 
habitants ? 

136. What conclusion does the study of Physical 
Geography furnish regarding a definite plan in the crea- 
tion of the earth ? 



PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHT. 103 



ANSWERS. 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

1. Physical Geography treats of the land and water, 
the atmosphere, and the plants and animals that live on 
the earth. — Eclectic Complete Geog., p. 5. 

2. Geology describes in their succession, the past ages 
of the globe, before the creation of man. Physical Geog- 
raphy, on the contrary, concerns itself only with the 
present completed condition of the globe ; thus it begins 
where Geology ends. — Guyofs Pliys. Geog. p. 2. 

3. The natural subdivisions are, (1) The earth as a 
whole, (2) The Land, (3) The Water, (4) The Atmos- 
phere, (5) The Life upon the globe. — Id.,p. 2. 

4. The Nebular Hypothesis supposes that there once 
existed in space a great, chaotic, nebulous mass, endowed 
with a kind of whirlpool motion, which gradually con- 
densing through the mutual attraction of its particles 
formed the countless suns distributed through space ; 
that the planets were formed by the condensation of 
rings of matter successively thrown off by the central 
mass, and the satellites by the condensation of matter 
thrown off in like manner by their primaries. — LocTcyefs 
Elements of Astronomy, p. 54. 

5. A true nebula is a mass of incandescent or glowing 
gas. — Id., p. 54. 

6. The earth at a remote period of its existence was in 
a state of igneous fluidity. All rocks and metals were 
molten, and the fiery mass, surrounded by a thick atmos- 



104 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

phere, charged with vapors and gases. — Warren'' s Physi- 
cal Geog., p. 11. 

7. The direct proof of this original fluidity is the 
spheroidal form of the earth. A tenaceous, yiscous fluid 
only could assume this form under the influence of the 
rotation of its axis. — Id., p. 11. 

8. In the course of countless ages the earth lost heat, 
and cooled sufficiently to become solid on the surface, 
while the interior remains to this day a fiery, molten 
mass. — Id., p. 11. 

9. The thickness of the earth's crust has been variously 
estimated at from fifty to one hundred miles. — Id., p. 
11, 12. 

10. (1) "Warm springs are numerous in all parts of 
the earth, (2) Active volcanoes are found in all latitudes, 
ejecting, from time to time, streams of red hot lava. 
(3) Artesian wells and mines permit the actual observa- 
tion of the internal temperature to the depth of 3,000 
feet, — Ouyofs Phys. Geog., pp. 10, 11, 

11. The average increase of temperature toward the 
interior of the earth is 1° Fahr. for every 55 feet. — Id., 
j9. 12. 

12. The temperature of boiling water must be reached 
at the depth of 9,000 feet ; and at the depth of thirty 
miles the heat would be sufficient to melt the most re- 
fractory substance. — Id., p. 12. 

13. Many philosophers doubt or wholly disbelieve in 
the fluidity of the central mass, and only admit the 
existence of local seas and lakes of molten rock. 
Whether the interior be in a liquid state or kept solid 
by the immense pressure as we approach the center, 
does not affect the conclusion that it is in an intensely 
heated condition. — Maury^s Phys. Geog., p. 18, 

14. Chemical research shows that there are but sixty- 
four simple substances in the world. — Id., p. 17. 



PHYSICAL OEOGRAPEY. 105 

15. There are twelve which mainly compose the rocks 
and earth of the crust, viz. : oxygen, silicon, alumin- 
ium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, iron, 
carbon, sulphur, hydrogen, chlorine. — Warren's Phys. 
Oeog., p. 12. 

16. Geological investigations show that, since the 
earth was established in its present form and orbit, 
countless ages have elapsed, and that, in the interim, 
the surface, and indeed the whole earth, has undergone 
many changes. Much of what is now land has been 
once and again sea, and we may believe that much of 
what is now sea has repeatedly emerged as dry land. 
Various successions of plants and animals have flour- 
ished and been overwhelmed ; while from the simplest 
beginnings, life has constantly, through all these 
changes, advanced toward higher forms and more pro- 
fuse varieties. Different climates have succeeded one 
another; glacial ice has grated over surfaces once 
warmed with tropical heat, and strange creatures have 
sported in the waves, where now are thriving towns and 
fertile fields. — Maury's Phys. Geog., p. 17. 

17. The term rock is applied to the materials which 
make up the crust of the earth, whether they be com- 
pact or loose, hard or soft. — Id., p. 18. 

18. With reference to their origin, they are igneous 
or aqueous, that is, due to the action of fire or water. — 
Id., p. 18. 

19. With reference to condition and appearance, they 
are stratified, unstratified or metamorphic. — Id., p. 18. 

20. With reference to contents, they are fossiliferous 
or non-fossiliferous. — Id., p. 18. 

21. With reference to time of formation, they are 
primary, secondary, or tertiary. — Id., p. 19. 

22. Fossils are the remains of organic beings — plants 
and animals — that lie imbedded in the rock formations 



106 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

of the earth's crust. They have usually lost their or- 
ganic matter, which has been replaced by mineral mat- 
ter. — Warren's Pliys. Geog., p. 13. 

23. By their position. The lowest rocks are the old- 
est. — Id., p. 13. 

24. This division is based on the occurrence of the 
various fossils. For the life of the globe has changed 
with the progress of time, and each age has its peculiar 
species of plants and animals. Identity of fossils proves 
identity of age. — Id. p. 13. 

25. (1) Azoic Age. (2) Age of Mollusks, or Silurian 
Age. (3) Age of Fishes, or Devonian Age. (4) Car- 
boniferous Age. (5) Reptilian Age. (6) Mammalian 
Age. (7) Age of Man.— M, pp. 13, 14. 

26. Protozoans, Eadiates, Mollusks, Articulates, and 
Vertebrates. — Dana's 3Ia?iual of Geology, p. 116. 

27. The atmosphere, the water, and the reaction of 
the melted interior upon the crust. — Warren's Fhys. 
Geog., p. 14. 

28. The crust of the earth at first was smooth, >30 
that the entire surface may have been covered with wa- 
ter (Gen. i., 9). As the molten matter of the earth 
cooled it lost bulk, or contracted, and the crust, too 
thin and frail to support itself, began to wrinkle. The 
water fell into the depressions and made the seas. The 
elevations appeared as dry land. By continued cooling 
the seas became deeper and the land elevations higher. 
— Notes on Fhys. Geog. Ed., p. 4. 

29. (1) All rock except igneous has probably been 
formed by the action of water in the bottom of the sea. 
The land surface of the earth is largely made up of dif- 
ferent layers of aqueous rock. (2) Fossil sea-shells are 
found in rocks on mountain tops. (3) Between layers 
of aqueous rock are found layers of vegetable matter ; as, 
coal-beds, clay, vegetable mould, etc.— Id., p. 7. 



PHYSICAL QEOQRAPEY. 107 

30. (1) Over a greater part of North America and 
Europe, rocks and boulders have been transported from 
distant mountains and scattered over the surface. Some 
of these weigh hundreds of tons. (2) These rocks and 
boulders have been scratched and furrowed in transpor- 
tation. (3) The rocky beds over which they seem to have 
moved are also scratched and furrowed. They have been 
moved from the arctic regions toward the Equator. A 
similar work is being done by the glaciers in Greenland 
and the Alps at the present time. (4) The remains of 
tropical animals are found in. arctic regions, and the 
remains of arctic animals in tropical regions ; as, the 
elephant in Northern Siberia ; the reindeer in Southern 
Europe. — Id., p. 8. 

31. The proportion of land to water upon the globe is 
as 27 : 72, the land covering 53,000,000 square miles, 
the sea 144,000,000. — Ouyofs Physical Geog., p. 21. 

32. There are six large masses of land called continents, 
viz.. North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Af- 
rica, and Australia. — 3f aury^ s Manual of Geog., p. 10. 

33. A Plateau, or table-land, is an elevated plain or 
broad mountain-top, often broken or bordered by ranges 
of mountains. — Id., p. 11. 

34. The land masses are crowded together around the 
north pole, their northern limits beiug about the 70th 
parallel. — GuyofsPhys. Geog., p. 21. 

35. The cold tops of mountains condense the moisture 
which is brought by the winds from the sea. Thus the 
mountains feed the rivers. If the continents were en- 
tirely level, the winds would often sweep across them 
from sea to sea without letting a drop of water fall upon 
the land. By their slopes, also, mountains determine 
the course of rivers. — Maury's Manual of Geog., 
p. 11. 

36. If covered with grass, but destitute of trees, they 



108 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

are sometimes termed in different countries. Prairies, 
Pampas, Llanos, Steppes, etc. ; if densely wooded, as in 
Brazil, Selvas ; if without yegetation throughout the 
year. Deserts. — Maury's Phys. Geog., p. 29. 

37. A primary highland region upon one side, a sec- 
ondary one on the opposite side, trending towards the 
primary, and a depression between the two, is the typical 
structure of a continent. — Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 40. 

38. The main axis in every continent is placed outside 
of the center, and near one of the shores ; thus the con- 
tinent is divided into two slopes, unequal in length and 
inclination. — Id., p. 40. 

39. The highest land on the earth's surface — Mount 
Everest in the Himalayas — rises about 29,000 feet above 
the level of the sea. — Warrefi's Phys. Geog., p. 19. 

40. The lowest land of the earth's surface — the de- 
pression of the Dead Sea in Palestine — lies 1,300 feet 
below the ocean. — Id., p. 19. 

41. Plateau of Thibet, 14,000 feet ; Bolivian Plateau, 
in the Andes, 12,000 feet ; Plateau of Anahuac, in Mex- 
ico, 8,000 feet ; Arabian Plateau, 7,000 feet to 8,000 
teet.—Id.,p. 20. 

42. Lakes are bodies of water collected in the depres- 
sions of the land. They may be divided into two classes: 
those that have an outlet into the sea, and those that 
have not. — Id. p. 41. 

43. The largest lakes of the globe are the Aral and 
Caspian Seas, and the great North American and African 
lakes. — Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 51. 

44. Lakes with no outlets are usually salt. The sur- 
faces of the continents having been the beds of the pri- 
meval oceans, the presence of salt in the soil is a natural 
consequence. If the streams receiving the substances 
washed from the soil by the rainfall, do not flow away 
to the ocean, but enter inland basins without outlet, the 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 109 

lakes formed in those basins will necessarily be salt. — Id., 
p. 51. 

45. The Great Salt Lake of Utah, the Caspian and 
Aral Seas between Europe and Asia are the most exten- 
sive salt lakes. — Id., p. 51. 

46. A river and its tributaries together form what is 
called a river system. — Maury's Manual ofGeog., p. 11. 

47. To carry off surplus water, to provide water in 
time of drouth, to ,float vessels of commerce, to move 
machinery, and to temper climate. — Notes on Phys. 
Geog.—Ed. 

48. The basin or valley of a river is the country 
through which the river and its tributaries flow. — Mau- 
ry^ s Matiual of Geog,, p. 11. 

49. Deltas and estuaries are terms applied to different 
forms of river mouths, A delta is formed by the detri- 
tus or earthy material which the river carries along 
from the upper part of its basin, and which, owing to 
the decrease of velocity, it deposits near the mouth. — 
Warren's Phys. Oeog., p. 38. 

50. The amount of water in rivers depends on (1) the 
extent of territory they drain ; (2) the amount of rain 
and moisture precipitated in this region ; (3) the physi- 
cal features of the country through which they flow — a 
well-wooded country impeding, and an open one favor- 
ing evaporation ; and (4) the climate, heat, and diy at- 
mosphere increasing the loss by evaporation. — Id., p. 36. 

51. The commonly received explanation of intermit- 
tent springs supposes a subterranean cavity with one or 
more fissures admitting water, and another, in the form 
of a siphon, discharging it. As soon as the reservoir is 
filled up to the level of the highest point of the siphon, 
the latter begins to discharge water. The outflow con- 
tinues until the reservoir is emptied to the level of the 
place of exit, when it ceases, to recommence as soon as 



110 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the feeders have again brought the water to the level of 
the highest point of the siphon. — Guyofs Phys. Oeog., 
p. 48. 

52. In particular situations the strata of which the 
surface is formed do not rest horizontally upon one an- 
other, but are inclined, the different strata being like 
cups, or basins placed one within the other. Some of 
these strata are composed of material, as sand or gravel, 
through which water will soak most readily ; while other 
strata, like clay and rock, will not allow the water to 
pass through them. If, now, we suppose a stratum like 
sand, pervious to water, to be included between two 
other strata of clay or rock, the water falling upon the 
uncovered margin of the ready stratum will be absorbed 
and penetrate through its whole depth. It will be pre- 
vented from rising to the surface by the impervious 
stratum above it, and from sinking lower by the equally 
impervious stratum below it. It will, therefore, accumu- 
late as in a reservoir. If, now, we bore down through 
the upper stratum until we reach the stratum containing 
the water, the water will rise in the excavation to the 
height or level of the water accumulated in the reservoir 
from which it flows. — WelVs Natural Philosophy, pp. 
135, 136. 

53. Volcanoes are mountains or hills of a more or less 
conical shape, in a state of igneous action, and conse- 
quently emitting vapors, and, occasionally, melted rock 
or lava, with showers of fragments, or cinders, from a 
central opening called the crater. They are conduits of 
fire opening outward from within or beneath the earth's 
crust. — Dana^s 3Ianual of Geology, p. 722. 

54. Volcanoes are confined to the coast-regions of the 
continents, and to islands, continental as well as oceanic. 
In the interior of the continents, it is now believed, no ac- 
tive volcanoes are found. — Warren's Phys. Geog., p. 29. 



PHYSICAL GEOORAPEY. m 

55. Tlie most reasonable view is, that the volcanoes 
are outbreaks of the steam that is confined in the rocks 
beneath the sea or near to it. All our rocks made in 
water have from four to fifteen per cent, of their mass 
made up of imprisoned water. This water becomes 
heated because the beds laid down on top of it are very 
thick, and act like a blanket to keep the earth's heat in. 
In the course of ages this water may come to have a heat 
as great as that of melted iron. Now, if a crack is 
found in the overlying beds that will let these gases es- 
cape, we shall have a volcano. — Shaler's First Book in 
Geology, pp. 90, 91. 

56. Dr. Fuchs enumerates 672, of which 270 are ac- 
tive. — Guyofs Phys. Geog.,p. 13. 

67. Eighteen hundred years ago (a.d. 79), the cities 
of Herculaneum and Pompeii, in Italy, were covered 
with a deluge of ashes from an eruption of Vesuvius. 
They were buried from 70 to 120 feet, and lost to view 
for nearly seventeen centuries. — Maury's Physical 
Geog. , p. 46. 

58. The most active volcanic region in the world, at 
present, is in the East Indies. Java is the center of it. 
Id., p. 48. 

59. Among the noted volcanoes of the present time 
are Vesuvius, in Western Italy ; Etna, on the island of 
Sicily ; Hecla, in Iceland ; Cotopaxi, in Ecuador ; and 
others on the western coast of North and South Amer- 
ica. — Notes on Phys. Geog., Ed. 

60. Earthquakes are movements of the earth's crust, 
varying in intensity from a hardly perceptible vibration 
to violent convulsions, which change the face of the 
ground and overthrow the most substantial works of 
man. — Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 16. 

61. The wave-like or undulating motion, the vertical 
motion which acts from beneath like the explosion 



112 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

of a mine, tlie rotary or whirling motion. — Id., pp. 16, 
17. 

62. Ko satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon of 
earthquakes has as yet been proposed. — Id., p. 17. 

It is now generally believed tliat the principal cause 
of eartliquakes is the strain produced by the contraction 
of a cooling crust. — Ilouston'n Phyn. Geofj., p. 27. 

63. The immediate connections of earthquakes with 
volcanic eruptions is evident in many instances, yet 
these arc of a special kind. Volcanic eruptions often 
take place without earthquakes, as in the Sandwich 
Islands ; and many severe earthquakes occur in regions 
fur removed from any active volcano, and destitute of 
volcanic rocks. Even in volcanic districts the most ex- 
tensive earthquakes ])ear apparently no relation to the 
surrounding volcanoes. — Guyot's Phys. Oeog., p. 17. 

f;4. Some of the most destructive earthquakes of 
which records have been preserved, lasted but a few 
seconds, or at most minutes. That of Lisbon produced 
its terrible effects in less then five minutes. — Warren's 
Phyn. Geoy., p. 32. 

65. The shuddering movement of the ground which 
destroys buildings, etc.; the engulfing of parts of the 
surface in fissures or rents ; the formation of vast waves 
in the sea, which roll in great floods over the adjoining 
land. All these wore present in the earthquake which 
destroyed the city of Lisbon, Portugal, 1755, — Notes on 
Phys. Oeog., Ed. 

60. At Lisbon, on coast of Portugal, 1755, 00,000 
lives lost; at Calabria in Southern Italy, 1783, a num- 
ber of towns and villages destroyed and 40,000 people ; 
at Caraccas, in New Grenada, 1812, city destroyed, 12,- 
000 lives lost ; at Island of St. Thomas, about twenty 
miles southeast of Porto Rico, 1867, great loss of prop- 
erty and considerable loss of life; at Island of Aschia in 



PHYSICAL OEOORAPUT. II3 

the Mediterranean Sea, 1883, nearly entire population 
of the island perished ; at the Island of Java, same year, 
a strait used for commerce was closed up by the appear- 
ance of new islands, thousands of lives were lost. 

At Charleston, South Carolina, 188G, a large part of 
the city was destroyed and many lives lost. The area of 
disturbance was very large. — Id. 

67. Climate is the condition of the atmosphere as re- 
gards heat and moisture. — Warren's Phys. Oeog., 
p. 63. 

68. Atmosphere is the name given to the entire mass 
of air which surrounds the earth. — Id,, p. 50. 

69. Meteorology is the science which treats of the at- 
mosphere, its phenomena, and the laws which govern 
them. — Id,, p. 50. 

70. Atmospheric air is composed of three gases in 
the following proportions by weight: nitrogen, 76.84; 
oxygen, 23.10; carbonic acid, 0.06, with moisture, or 
vapor, in variable quantities. — Id., p. 50. 

71. The height of the atmosphere has not yet been 
ascertained. Its limit has been variously estimated at 
from fifty to five hundred miles. — Id., p. 51. 

72. The weight of the atmosphere is measured by its 
pressure on the barometer. — Guyofs Phys. Geoy., p. 69. 

73. The barometer is a slender glass tube about a 
yard in length, closed at one end, then filled with mer- 
cury and reversed, the open end being placed in a cup 
of the same fluid. The atmosphere, pressing upon the 
fluid in the cup, keeps within the tube a column of 
mercury exactly sufficient to balance its own weight. 
When from any cause the pressure of the air increases, 
the barometer rises ; when it decreases, the barometer 
falls.— M, p. 69. 

74. The climate of a country is mainly dependent on 
its latitude. — Warren's Phys. Geoy., p. 63. 

8 



114 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

75. Elevation above the sea, position of mountains 
and plains with respect to prevalent winds, slope of 
land, vicinity to the sea, nature of soil, influence of 
ocean currents, and amount of rain. — Id., p. 63. 

76. Isothermal lines are lines uniting all parts of the 
earth which have the same annual mean temperature. — 
Maury's Phys. Geog., p. 68. 

77. Three general causes combine to produce the 
gradual diminution of temperature from the equator to 
the poles. (1) In the Equatorial regions the rays of 
the sun are perpendicular to the surface of the sphere, 
and then produce their maximum effect ; but, on ac- 
count of the curved outline of the globe, they fall more 
and more obliquely with increasing latitude, and the in- 
tensity of action diminishes proportionately. (2) The 
area on which a given amount of heating power is ex- 
pended, is least at the Equator, consequently the result- 
ing heat is greatest. (3) The absorption of heat by 
the atmosphere as the sun's rays pass through it, is least 
where they fall perpendicularly — that is, in the Equa- 
torial regions, and increases, with their increasing 
obliquity, toward the poles. — Gugofs Phys. Geog., p. 
70. 

78. By reason of the direction of the prevailing winds 
and the cold Arctic current, the climate of Labrador is 
somewhat below that due to the direct heat of the sun, 
or, in other words, to the climate due the latitude. 
The climate of Great Britain, on the other hand, is the 
climate due the latitude, modified, in the first place, by 
the latent heat of vapor, and, in the next place, by in- 
fluence of the Gulf Stream and the surrounding seas 
that are tempered by its tepid waters. — Mmcry's Phys. 
Geog., p. 62. 

79. Winds are masses of air in motion. They some- 
what resemble currents in the ocean, and result from the 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 115 

same causes, Tiz. : the disturbance in the equilibrium of 
the atmosphere by heat and by the rotation of the earth. 
— Houston's Phys. Geog,, p. 83. 

80. The warmer portion expands and becomes lighter, 
and, being pressed upon by the adjacent colder and 
heavier air, it rises and its place is occupied by the lat- 
ter. This process results in an ascending current from 
the region of greatest heat, and horizontal currents flow- 
ing from all directions toward that region. — Guyofs 
Physical Geog., p. 76. 

81. Winds may be grouped in three classes, namely, 
constant, periodical and variable winds. — Id., p. 76. 

82. The first class embraces the trade winds of tropi- 
cal latitudes. The second class includes the diurnal 
land and sea breezes and the monsoons or season winds, 
occurring chiefly in tropical regions. The variable winds 
are more temporary and local, and characterize especially 
the temperate and high latitudes. — Id., p. 76. 

83. The constant, gentle, northeasterly and southeast- 
erly winds, occupying a belt of about 20° of latitude on 
each side of the Equator, are designated as trade winds. 
—Id., p. 77. 

84. The steadiness of these winds, and the way in 
which they may be counted upon in navigation, led, 
long ago, to their being called by their present name. — 
Science Primer, Phys. Geog., GeiTce, p. 27. 

85. The land becomes heated more quickly than the 
sea. After a hot day the surface of the land becomes 
much colder than the sea because it parts with its heat 
sooner than the sea does. By day the hot land heats the 
air above it and makes it lighter, so that it ascends, 
while the cooler and heavier air lying on the sea flows 
landward as a cool and refreshing sea-breeze. By night 
this state of things is just reversed, for then the air 
which lies on the chilled land being cooler and heavier 



116 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

than that which coYers the warmer sea, flows seaward as 
a cool land breeze. — Id., p. 26. 

86. The name monsoon (from the Arabic word mons- 
sim) season is applied to the periodical winds which re- 
place the trades in the northern half of the Indian 
Ocean and in the adjacent parts of the Pacific. During 
the northern summer the wind blows from the south- 
west ; during the opposite season, from the northeast. 
The monsoons are due to the unequal heating, in differ- 
ent seasons, of the great land masses which enclose the 
Indian Ocean. — Guyofs Phys. Geog.,p. 78. 

87. Whirlwinds are caused by conflicting currents of 
air. They are always of short duration, rarely continu- 
ing over a minute. — Warren's Phys. Geog., p. 56. 

88. This moisture is the vapor of the atmosphere, 
which has been condensed by tlie cold surface of the 
pitcher ; in precisely the same manner dewdrops are con- 
densed by plants and other bodies. — Id., p. 59. 

89. When the objects on which vapor is condensed are 
cooled below 32° (the freezing point), the vapor no 
longer appears in the form of drops of water, but in 
minute icicles called hoar-frost. — Id., p. 59. 

90. Water, whether in the sea or on land, is slowly trans- 
formed into invisible vapor, which, being very much 
lighter than air — as 3 : 5 — rises, and is diffused through 
every part of the atmosphere. — Guyofs Phys. Geog., 
p. 84. 

91. Clouds are masses of visible vapor, differing in no 
respect from fogs, except in position. They are sus- 
pended at a considerable elevation in the atmosphere, 
instead of being confined to tlie surface of the earth. — 
WaiTen's Phys. Geog., p. 60. 

92. Eain is the vapor of the clouds or air condensed 
and precipitated to the earth in drops. Snow is the 
condensed vapor of the air frozen and precipitated to 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. nr 

the earth. Hail is the moisture of the air frozen into 
drops of ice. — WelVs Natural Philosophy, pp. 277, 280. 

93. Water contracts in volume, with a diminution of 
temperature, until reduced to 39.2° Fahr., when its den- 
sity is greatest. Below this temperature it expands. — 
Guy of s Phys. Oeog., p. 47. 

94. Did water contract as long as the temperature is 
reduced, like other substances in nature, the freezing 
particles being heaviest would sink to the bottom, and 
the whole, brought successively in contact with the frosty 
atmosphere of the surface, would be rapidly frozen. 
Thus, in severe winters, the great lakes of middle lati- 
tudes might be converted into vast reservoirs of solid 
ice, which no summer's sun would have the power to 
melt. — Id., p. 47. 

95. Glaciers are immense masses of ice and snow which 
move with extreme slowness down the higher mountain 
valleys or slopes. Their upper parts are formed of soft 
snow ; their lower portions of clear, hard ice. — Hous- 
ton's Phys. Geog.,p. 100. 

96. The weight of the huge snowfields which form 
above the snow line, presses the mass slowly down the 
slopes. The pressure is due to the weight of the super- 
incumbent layers, but especially that which is produced 
when the mass is forced through a contraction in the 
valley, squeezes out the confined air, to which snow, in 
great part, owes its white color, and the lower part of 
the glacier thus becomes changed into a compact mass of 
pure ice. The alternate thawing and freezing to which 
the mass is subjected below the snow-line also con- 
tributes to the change from snow to ice. — Id., p. 100. 

97. The most extensive glaciers are found on the 
snow-covered islands of the polar oceans. — Guy of s Phys. 
Geog., p. 95. 

98. Vast masses of ice, broken from the ends of these 



118 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

glaciers, form the enormous icebergs which are so 
numerous in polar seas, and are transported by the cur- 
rents even to middle latitudes. — Id., p. 95. 

99. On the surfaces of all great glaciers are narrow and 
well-defined bands of rocks and rubbish called moraines. 
—Id. p. 95. 

100. Old moraines, polished and grooved rocks, and 
other evidences of glacier action, so different from that 
of water, show that, in a time long past, vast and thick 
glaciers existed in New England and in other parts of 
North America, and in Europe where no permanent 
snows are now found. — Id., p. 94. 

101. The Ocean or the Sea, is that great continuous 
body of water which surrounds the continents and isl- 
ands, and covers about three-fourths of the earth's sur- 
face. — Warren'' s Phys. Geog. , p. 42. 

102. The sea serves as a sewer to the land, and a 
reservoir for the clouds ; it is the highway of the world. 
The task of reducing the crust of the earth and of 
bringing it to its present condition, was assigned to the 
waters. — Maury's Phys. Geog., p. 119. 

103. The water of the sea contains in solution a large 
amount of common salt (chloride of sodium), and 
smaller proportions of sulphate and carbonate of lime, 
magnesia, potash, iodine, and some other substances. — 
Guyofs Phys. Geog., p. 58. 

104. The salt of the ocean tends to preserve its liquid 
condition at low temperatures. Sea water freezes at 26|^°, 
while the freezing point of fresh water is 32° Fahr. — 
Id., p. 58. 

105. Observations thus far made justify the conclu- 
sion that the greatest depths of the sea are from 25,000 
to 30,000 feet, about equivalent to the greatest heights of 
the continents. — Id., p. 60. 

106. The ocean is subject to three movements — name- 



FEYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 119 

ly, waves, tides, and currents. — Warren^ s Phys. Geog., 
p. 44. 

107. Waves are oscillatory or swinging movements of 
the water, mainly produced by the wind. — Id., p. 44. 

108 That movement of the ocean which consists in a 
periodical rising and falling of the water is called the 
tides. — Id., p. 44. 

109. The tides are caused by the attractive force 
with which the moon and the sun act upon the earth. 
That the moon is the chief cause of the tides is known 
from observation ; for a culmination of the moon at any 
given point of the surface of the ocean is always followed 
by a flood tide at that point. — Id., p. 44. 

110. When the sun and moon act together, on the 
same hemisphere of the earth, the tidal wave is higher 
than usual. The flood tides are then highest, and the 
ebb tides lowest, these are called spring tides. They 
occur twice during every revolution of the moon — once 
at full, and once at new moon. When the sun and 
moon are 90° apart, or in a quadrature, each produces a 
tide on the portion of the earth directly under it, dimin- 
ishing somewhat that produced by the other body. 
High tide then occurs under the moon, while the high 
tide caused by the sun becomes, by comparison, a low 
tide. Such tides are called neap tides. — Houston^ s Phys. 
Geog , p. 79. 

111. The height of the tide depends on local circum- 
stances. In the midst of the Pacific it is scarcely more 
than two feet, which may be considered its normal 
level. But when dashing against the land, or forced 
into deep gulfs and estuaries, the accumulating tide 
water sometimes reaches a great height. — Guyofs Phys. 
Geog., p. 64. 

112. At the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, it rises 
eighteen feet, while at the head of the bay it reaches 



120 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

sixty feet, and in the highest spring tides even seventy 
feet. At Bristol in England, the spring tides rise to 
forty feet ; and at St. Malo, on the south coast of the 
English Channel, they reach fifty feet. — Id., p. 64, 

113. Heat and cold, with their powers of expansion 
and contraction, are the chief agents in begetting cur- 
rents. — Maury^s Phys. Geog., p. 122. 

114. Two series of currents, of opposite character, 
pervade the sea in high latitudes — the cold, flowing 
from the polar regions toward the equatorial ; and the 
warm, flowing in the opposite direction. — Guy of 8 PTiys. 
Geog., p. 65. 

115. The polar and return currents, were they acted 
upon by no external force, would move in the line of 
the meridians, taking the shortest course between the 
poles and the equator. Both are, however, deflected 
from this course by the unceasing action of the earth's 
rotation — the polar currents as they advance tending 
more and more toward the west, and the return cur- 
rents toward the east, and their directions are still far- 
ther modified by the forms of the basins of the several 
oceans and the influence of prevailing winds in different 
zones. — Id., p. 65. 

116. It is the great current of the Atlantic which 
connects in their circulation the waters of the Arctic 
seas with the Torrid Zone. — Maury's Fhys. Geog., p. 15. 

117. It has its source in the Gulf of Mexico. It pur- 
sues a northeasterly course across the Atlantic. Pass- 
ing the extreme northern point of Europe, it delivers its 
waters into the Arctic Ocean. — Id., p. 125. 

118. The surface temperature of the water at the 
Lesser Antilles is usually 79° or 80° ; between Cuba and 
Florida it is 82°. This rapidly decreases with depth, 
until at 4,800 feet it is 39^°. — Appleton's Phys. Geog., 
p. 60. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 131 

119. Its temperature is such as to warm all the land 
near which it passes. It makes Norway habitable, and 
keeps the harbor of Hammerfest free from ice, although 
this town is within the Arctic circle. At the same 
latitude in America a severe Arctic climate prevails. — 
Id., p. 60. 

120. Coral reefs are masses of limestone originally 
secreted, in the form of coral, by minute polyps which 
live in countless numbers in tropical seas. — Guy of s 
PTiys. Geog.^p. 44. 

121. Though of a great variety of shapes, they agree 
in one particular, viz. : They consist of a low, narrow 
vine of coral rock, enclosing a body of water called a 
lagoon. — Houston's Phys. Geog., p. 38. 

122. The structure of the polyps consists of a cylin- 
drical or sack-like membrane, attached at the bottom to 
some solid body, and inclosing a second sack which 
forms the stomach. At the top is an opening or mouth, 
which is surrounded by thread-like organs called tenta- 
cles. When expanded, the polyps resemble a flower in 
form, and often in beauty of color. The solid coral 
which composes the reef is secreted in the cavity between 
the outer and inner membranes, as the bones are secreted 
in the bodies of higher animals. Coral polyps multiply 
by eggs, to a certain extent ; but chiefly by a process of 
budding similar to the branching of plants. Thus they 
grow in vast communities, in which generation suc- 
ceeds generation, each individual leaving behind, as it 
dies, its contribution to the reef in the form of a small 
cell of carbonate of lime. — Guy of s Phys. Geog., p. 44. 

123. The plants of any section of country, taken to- 
gether, are called its flora. — Houston's Phys. Geog., 
p. 110. 

124. The animals found in any region of country are 
called its fauna. — Id., p. 120. 



122 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

125. The flora of different parts of the eartli differ 
widely, by reason of differences in lieat, moisture, light, 
slope and soil, particularly by the first two. — Cornell's 
Phys. Oeog., p. G3. 

12G. The distribution of heat, moisture, and vegeta- 
tion forms tlie true basis for the distribution of animal 
life. — Houston's Phys. Oeog., p. 120. 

127. It is estimated that there are about 250,000 dis- 
tinct plant-species upon the earth . Less than half of 
these have been described by botanists. — Warren's Phys. 
Oeog., p. 70. 

128. Vegetation is most luxuriant in tropical coun- 
tries. There the number of plant species is greatest. 
The individual plants are largest in size, the flowers 
most brilliant and fragrant, the fruits most delicate and 
highly flavored. — Id., p. 72. 

129. The plants of most value to man, as furnishing 
materials for clothing, are cotton, hemp, and flax. — Id., 
p. 77. 

130. Ethnology is that science which treats of the 
varieties of the human race, their physical and intellect- 
ual characteristics, and their geographical distribution 
on the earth. — Id., p. 8G. 

131. The three principal theories as to the origin of 
the race are : (1) That all human beings have descended 
from a single pair, and that external causes, such as dif- 
ferences of food, climate, mode of life, and local position 
are sufficient to explain the present diversities. (2) 
That the human race came into existence at different 
points on the earth by simultaneous or successive crea- 
tions, each being the source of a separate race and a 
separate family of languages. (3) That all the varieties 
of race are the result of a process of development or evo- 
lution, primarily from lower orders of life. — Id., p. 86. 

132. The white race are distinguished by their tall 



PHYSICAL GEOORAPHY. 123 

stature, graceful proportions, and light, elastic step ; 
their oval head and face, high broad forehead, symmet- 
rical features, and ruddy cheeks ; their abundant beard 
and waving or slightly curling hair. The color of the 
skin varies with the climate, from white in the European, 
to tawny or swarthy in the Hindoos, Arabs, Egyptians, 
and Berbers, who live on the borders of the tropical 
zone. — Ouyofs Physical Oeog., p. 115. 

133. Civilization is the progressive development of 
mankind in the social, intellectual, and moral point of 
view. — WarrerCs Physical Geog., p. 91. 

134. The Germanic and Komanic nations of Europe 
and some of their descendants in America, are the most 
highly civilized, as the English, Germans, French, and 
Americans. — Id., p. 93. 

135. The number of the earth's inhabitants has been 
variously estimated from 800 to 1,360 millions. — Id., 
p. 90. 

136. Truly no blind force gave our earth the forms so 
well adapted to perform these functions. The conclu- 
sion is irresistible — that the entire globe is a grand or- 
ganism, every feature of which is the outgrowth of a 
definite plan of the all -wise Creator for the education of 
the human family, and the manifestation of his own 
glory. — Quyofs Phys. Oeog., p. 181, 



124 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS. 
ARITHMETIC. 

1. Define mathematics. 

2. What arc tlic divisions of the science of mathe- 
matics ? 

3. What is arithmetic ? 

4. By whom was the science of arithmetic originated? 

5. Define quantity. 
G. Define number. 

7. What are the fundamental processes of arithmetic? 

8. What are figures ? 

9. Define notation. 

10. Name the two principal methods of notation. 

11. What is the Arabic notation, and why so called ? 

12. Wliere did the Arabic system originate ? 

13. Why are the first nine Arabic characters called 
digits, and why called significant figures ? 

14. What two values have figures ? 

15. Why is the Arabic system of notation called a 
decimal system ? 

16. What is the scale of a system of notation ? 

17. Give in order the names of the first six periods 
according to the Arabic notation. 

18. Name in order the periods above quadrillions. 

19. Describe the Roman notation. 

20. Upon what five principles is the Roman notation 
founded ? 

21. For what is the Roman notation principally used ? 

22. Express 1876 by the Roman method. 



ARITHMETIC. 136 

23. What is numeration ? 

24. Define addition. 

25. Give the principles of addition. 

26. Define difference between two numbers. 

27. Give the principles of subtraction. 

28. Define multiplication. 

29. What is the sign of multiplication and by whom 
introduced ? 

30. Give the principles of multiplication. 

31. Define division. 

32. What is the sign of division ? 

33. In what other ways may division be indicated ? 

34. Give the principles of division. 

35. Define problem. 

36. Define formula. 

37. How can the greater of two numbers be found, 
their sum and difference being given ? 

38. How may the less of two numbers be found, their 
sum and difference being given ? 

39. How are numbers classified ? 

40. Define the following : Abstract number, concrete 
number, simple numbers, compound number, prime 
number, composite number, even number, odd number, 
integral number, fractional numbei:, mixed number, simi- 
lar numbers, dissimilar numbers, commensurable num- 
bers, incommensurable numbers. 

41. Give the principal signs used in arithmetic with 
the signification of each. 

42. What are the factors of a number ? 

43. What is a prime factor ? 

44. What is the greatest common divisor of two num- 
bers ? 

45. When are two or more numbers prime to each 
other ? 

46. Define multiple. 



126 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

47. Define least common multiple. 

48. Find greatest common divisor of 730, 1241 and 
1460. 

49. Find least common multiple of 12, 15, 42, 70. 

50. Define cancellation. 

51. Upon what principle does cancellation depend ? 

52. Define fraction. 

53. Define unit of a fraction. 

54. Define fractional unit. 

55. How are fractions classified ? 

56. What is a proper fraction ? An improper frac- 
tion ? 

57. What is a simple fraction ? A compound frac- 
tion ? A complex fraction ? 

58. Name and define the terms of a fraction. 

59. What is the reciprocal of a number ? 

60. What is reduction of fractions ? 

61. What fractions can be added or subtracted ? 

62. What is a continued fraction ? 

63. A man engaging in trade lost | of his money in- 
vested, after which he gained $740, when he had $3,500; 
how much did he lose ? 

64. A can do a piece of work in 8 days, and B can do 
the same in six days ; in what time can both together 
doit ? 

65. Name and describe the two methods of treating 
common fractious. 

66. Name the cases of reduction of fractions. 

67. What are decimal fractions ? 

68. What constitutes the difference between a decimal 
fraction and a decimal ? 

69. In what two ways may a decimal fraction bd 
expressed ? 

70. Give rule for vrriting decimals. For reading 
decimals. 



ARITHMETIC. 127 

71. What will be the denominator of any decimal ? 

72. Give the principles which govern decimals. 

73. What is a circulating decimal ? 

74. How may a pure circulating decimal be reduced to 
a common fraction? 

75. How can you find the cost of articles sold by the 
ton? 

76. What is the cost of a load of hay, weighing 2,280 
pounds, at $18.50 a ton? 

77. What is a compound denominate number ? 

78. Define standard unit. 

79. Define scale. 

80. Define measure. 

81. Name the kinds of measures. 

82. What is money? 

83. What is the Metric system ? 

84. What is the meter ? 

85. Define longitude, 

86. Explain the relation between longitude and time. 

87. How may difference in time be found when differ- 
ence in longitude is known ? 

88. How may difference in longitude be found when 
difference in time is known ? 

89. A gentleman traveling found, on arriving at his 
destination, that his watch, which kept correct time, 
was 1 hr. 11 min. slow. Which way was he traveling ? 
How far had he traveled ? 

90. How does the time on any given meridian compare 
with the time indicated by clocks at places east or west 
of this meridian ? 

91. How is longitude at sea found by navigators ? 

92. What is meant by an aliquot part of a number ? 

93. Define percentage. 

94. Name the elements in the operation of percentage. 

95. Define each of these elements. 



128 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

96. Give rules for five general problems in percentage. 

97. Name the principal applications of percentage. 

98. Sold two houses at $2,484 each ; gained on one 8 
per cent., and lost 8 per cent, on the other; what did I 
gain or lose ? 

99. Define commission. 

100. What is a broker ? What is brokerage ? 

101. What is insurance ? 

102. Define policy. 

103. Define property insurance. 

104. Define personal insurance. 

105. What is an endowment policy ? 

106. Define interest. 

107. What is usury ? 

108. What is the difference between simple and com- 
pound interest ? 

109. How may exact interest be found ? 

110. What is a promissory note ? 

111. What is a negotiable note ? 

112. Give form of promissory note payable to order. 

113. What is the interest of $48.40 for 2 years, 7 
months, and 15 days, at 6 per cent.? 

114. What is the exact interest of $345.60, from Feb. 
5, 1863, to Aug. 20, 1865, at 7 per cent.? 

115. Define discount. 

116. What is the true present worth of a debt payable 
at a future time without interest ? 

117. Define true discount. 

118. Define bank discount. 

119. What is the protest of a note ? 

120. What is the difference between the bank discount 
and true discount upon a note of $970 for 90 da. at 7 ^ ? 

121. What is a tax ? 

122. What is an assessor ? 

123. Define exchange. 



ARITHMETIC. 130 

124. What is a draft ? 

125. Write a draft in proper form. 

126. What is meant by course of exchange ? ' 

127. Name and define the parties to a transaction in 
exchange. 

128. What is the indorsement of a bill ? 

129. What is the acceptance of a bill ? 

130. What are duties or customs ? 

131. Define specific duty. Ad Valorem duty. 

132. What is a tariff ? 

133. Define equation of payments. 

134. Define ratio. 

135. What is a simple ratio ? A compound ratio ? 

136. What are the terms of a ratio called ? 

137. What is a proportion ? 

138. What are the extremes and the means of a pro- 
portion ? 

139. Upon what principles does the solution of prob- 
lems in proportion depend ? 

140. What is a compound proportion ? 

141. Give rule for solving problems in compound pro- 
portion. 

142. Solve the following by compound proportion : If a 
man earn $192 in 8 days by working 6 hours a day, how 
much can he earn in 20 days by working 10 hours a day. 

143. What is a partnership ? 

144. Define alligation. 

145. What is alligation medial ? Alligation alternate ? 

146. Define involution and evolution. 

147. Define power. Define root. 

148. Define perfect power. Imperfect power. 

149. Define exponent. 

150. How are roots indicated ? 

151. Find square root of 46656. 

152. Find cube root of 24137569. 

9 



130 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

153. What truth is established in geometry regarding 
the sides of a right-angled triangle ? 

154. The base of a right-angled triangle being 96 feet 
and the perpendicular 72 feet, what is the hypo then euse? 

155. Of what does mensuration treat ? 

156. Define polygon. 

157. How may the area of a triangle be found ? 

158. How may the area of a triangle be found when 
three sides only are given ? 

159. How may the area of a parallelogram be found ? 

160. Given the diameter of a circle, to find its circum- 
ference . 

161. What is the ratio of the circumference to the 
diameter of a circle ? 

162. How may the area of a circle be found, the cir- 
cumference and diameter being given ? 

163. How may the surface of a sphere be found ? 

164. How may the volume of a sphere be found ? 

165. How may the volume of a pyramid or cone be 
found ? 

166. How may the solid contents of a cylinder be 
found ? 

167. What is a series or progression ? 

168. What is an arithmetical progression ? 

169. What quantities are considered in arithmetical 
progression ? 

170. What is a geometrical progression ? 

171. What quantities are considered in geometrical 
progression ? 

172. Give two formulas that may be used in arith- 
metical progression. 

173. Give two formulas that may be used in geo- 
metrical progression. 

174. What is annuity ? 

175. How may problems in annuities be solved ? 



ARITHMETIC. 131 



ANSWERS. 
ARITHMETIC. 

1. Mathematics is that science, or class of sciences, 
which treats of the exact relations existing between 
quantities or magnitudes, and of the methods by which, 
in accordance with these relations, quantities sought 
are deducible from other quantities known or supposed. 
— Welster's Unabridged Dictionary. 

2. Mathematics embrace three departments, namely : 
(1) Arithmetic ; (2) Geometry, including Trigonometry 
and Conic Sections ; (3) Analysis, in which letters are 
used, including Algebra, Analytical Geometry, and Cal- 
culus. — Id. 

3. Arithmetic is the science of numbers and the art 
of computation. As a science, arithmetic classifies our 
knowledge of number and of computation. As an art 
it applies this knowledge. — Stoddard's Complete Arith., 
p. 8. 

4. The accepted opinion is that we have derived this 
science from the Greeks, who obtained it from the 
Phoenicians ; but if we consider that the Chaldeans, one 
of the oldest nations, have given us the knowledge of 
certain astronomical cycles, or periods, of which the 
determination required an advanced knowledge of 
arithmetic, it is evident tliat its origin is of much earlier 
date. — American Cyclopcedia, Vol. I., p. 707. 

5. Quantity is anything that can be increased, dimin- 
ished, or measured. — Robinson's Progressive Higher 
Arithmetic, p. 11. 



133 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

6. A number is a unit or a collection of units. — Mac- 
Vicar^ s Practical Arith., p. 7. 

Number is a definite expression of how many. — Stod- 
dard's Complete Arith. , p. 7. 

7. The Fundamental Processes of Arithmetic, or those 
upon which all others depend, are addition, subtraction, 
multiplication and division, — Qreenleafs Complete 
Arith., p. 309. 

8. Figures are characters used to represent numbers. 
— Olney^s Prac. Arith., p. 10. 

9. Notation is the art of expressing numbers by 
figures, letters or other numeral characters. 

Note. — Numbers are also expressed by words or com- 
mon language ; but this, strictly speaking, is not nota- 
tion. — TJiomsorCs Prac. Arith., p. 10. 

10. The two principal methods in use are the Arabic 
and the Konian. — Id., p. 10. 

1 1. The method of expressing numbers by ten figures is 
termed Arabic Notation, from its having been introduced 
into Europe by the Arabs. — Hagar's Com. School Arith., 
p. 13. 

12. The Arabic Notation originated in India, and was 
introduced into Europe by the Arabians in the eleventh 
century. This method is sometimes called the Indian 
Notation. — Stoddard's Complete Arith., p. 9. 

13. The first of the nine Arabic characters are called 
digits, from the Latin word digitus, a finger, owing to 
the fact that the ancients reckoned by counting the 
fingers. They are also called significant figures, be- 
cause they always indicate a definite number of units. 
The character, 0, called zero, cipher, or naught, always 
indicates an absence of units. — Brooks's Normal Arith., 
p. 16. 

14. Figures have two values. Simple and Local. The 
simple value of a figure is its value when standing in 



ARITHMETIC. 133 

units place. The local value of a figure is the value 
which arises from its location. — Stoddard's Complete 
Arith.,p. 13. 

15. In the Arabic notation ten units of the first order 
make one unit of the second order, ten units of the sec- 
ond order make one of the third order, and so on, accord- 
ing to the scale of ten ; hence this system of notation is 
called the Decimal System. — Id., p. 13. 

Decimal is from the Latin decern, which signifies ten. 
—Ed. 

16. The scale of a system of notation is the law of re- 
lation between its successive orders of units. The num- 
ber which expresses this law is called the radix of the 
scale. — Broolcs's Normal Arith., p. 17. 

17. Units, thousands, millions, billions, trillions, 
quadrillions. — Hagar's Corn. School Arith. , p. 12. 

18. The periods above quadrillions, in order, are — 
Quintillions, sextillions, septillions, octillions, nonillions, 
decillions, undecillions, duodecillions, tredecillions, 
quattuordecillions, quindecillions, sexdecillions, septen- 
decillions, octodecillions, novendecillions, vigentillions. 
—Id., p. 13. 

19. The Koman Notation is supposed to have been 
first used by the Eomans. It employs seven capital 
letters to express numbers. Thus, I, one ; V, five ; X, 
ten ; L, fifty ; C, one hundred ; D, five hundred ; M, 
one thousand. — Robinson's Progressive Higher Arith. y 
p. 15. 

20. 1st. Repeating a letter repeats its value. 2d. If 
a letter of any value be placed after one of greater value, 
its value is to be united to that of the greater. 3d. If a 
letter of any value be placed before one of a greater 
value, its value is to be tahen from that of the greater. 
4th. If a letter of any value be placed between two let- 
ters, each of greater value, its value is to be taken from 



134 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the united value of the other two. 5th. A bar or dash 
placed over a letter increases its value one thousand fold. 
—Id., p. 15. 

21. It is principally confined to the numbering of 
chapters and sections of books, public documents, etc. 
— Id., p. 16. 

22. ^X^QGCLXXNl.— Br ooTcs's Normal Arith., p. 19. 

23. Numeration is the art of expressing in words 
numbers that are written va. figures. — Sanford's Com. 
School Arith., p. 17. 

24. Addition is the process of uniting two or more 
numbers to find their sum. — Hagar's Com. School Arith., 
p. 18. 

25. 1. Only like numbers can be added. 2. The 
sum and the numbers added must be similar. 3. The 
sum of numbers will be the same in whatever order they 
are added. — Id. , p. 18. 

26. The difference between two numbers is the num- 
ber which, when added to the less, will make the 
greater. — Id., jj. 24. 

27. 1. Only similar numbers can be used in subtrac- 
tion. 2. The minuend, subtrahend, and difference 
must be similar numbers. 3. The sum of the differ- 
ence and subtrahend must equal the minuend. — Id., p. 
25. 

28. Multiplication is a process of taking one number 
as many times as there are units in another. — White's 
JVetv Complete Arith., p. 22. 

29. The sign of multiplication consists of two short 
lines of equal length, bisecting each other at an angle 
of 45 degrees with the line of writing. The symbol 
was first introduced by William Oughtred, an English 
mathematician. — Broohs's Normal Arith., p. 40. 

30. 1. The multiplier must be regarded as an abstract 
number. 2. The multiplicand and product must be 



ARITHMETIC. 135 

like numbers. 3. Either of the factors may be used as 
multiplicand or multiplier when both are abstract. — 
Milne's Practical Arith., p. 44. 

31. Division is the process of finding the quotient of 
two numbers. — Brooks's Normal Arith., p. 52. 

32. The sign of division is a short line, in the writing 
line, with one dot above and another below the middle 
of it. The symbol was introduced by Dr. John Pell, an 
English mathematician. — Id., p. 53. 

33. Division is also indicated by writing the divisor 
beneath the dividend, with a straight line between them ; 
or by writing the divisor at the left of the dividend, 
with a curved line between them. — Id., p. 52. 

34. 1. The dividend and divisor are always similar 
numbers. 2. The quotient is an abstract number. 

3. The remainder and the dividend are similar numbers. 

4. The dividend is equal to the divisor multiplied by 
the quotient, plus the remainder. 5. Division is the 
reverse of multiplication. 6. Division may be regarded 
as a concise method of subtraction. — llauVs Complete 
Arith., p. 41. 

35. A problem is something to be done, or a question 
to be solved. — Thomson's Prac. Arith., p. 72. 

36. A formula is a specific rule by which problems 
are solved, and may be expressed in common language 
or by signs. — Id., p. 72. 

37. The sum of two numbers, plus their difference, is 
equal to twice the greater number. — Robinson's Higher 
Arith., p. 64. 

38. The sum of two numbers, minus their difference, 
is equal to twice the less number. — Id., p. 64. 

39. Numbers are divided into abstract and concrete, 
simple and compound, prime and composite, odd and 
even, integral, fractional, and mixed, known and un- 
known, similar and dissimilar, commensurable and in- 



136 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

commensurable, rational and irrational, or surds. — 
Thomson's Prac. AritJi., p. 80. 

40. An abstract number is a number used without refer- 
ence to any particular thing or quantity ; as 3, 24, 756. 

A concrete number is a number used with reference 
to some particular thing or quantity; as 21 hours, 4 
cents, 230 miles. — Eobinson's Higher Arith., p. 11. 

Simple numbers are those which contain only one de- 
nomination ; as 13, 11 pounds. 

A compound number is one containing two or more 
denominations, which have the same base or nature ; as, 
3 shillings and 6 pence. — Thomson's Prac. Arith., p. 80. 

A prime number is one that has no exact divisors ex- 
cept itself and 1. Thus, 1, 3, 5 and 7 are prime numbers. 

A composite number is one that has exact divisors 
besides itself and 1. Thus, 18 and 24 are composite 
numbers, for 18 is divisible by 6 and 24 by 8. 

An even number is one that is exactly divisible by 2. 
Thus, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc., are even numbers. 

An odd number is one that is not exactly divisible by 
2. Thus, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc., are odd numbers. — Milne's 
Prac. Arith., p. 76. 

An integral number, or integer, is a number which 
- expresses whole things ; as seven, four days. — Pobinson's 
Complete Arith., p. 1. 

A fractional number, or fraction, is a number which 
expresses equal parts of a whole thing or quantity ; as ^, 
f of a pound, ^ of a bushel. — Robinson'' s Higher Arith., 
p. 11. 

A mixed number is an integer and a fraction expressed 
together; as, 5|, 11|, etc. — Thomson's Prac. Arith., p. 
81. 

Similar numbers are those which have the same unit ; 
as, 6 boys, 8 boys, 13 boys. 

Dissimilar numbers are those which have not the 



ARITHMETIC. 137 

same unit ; as, 6 eggs, 8 horses, 13 sheep. — RauVs Com- 
plete AritJi., p. 13. 

Commensurable numbers are those which can be di- 
vided by the same number without a remainder ; as 9 
and 12, each of which can be divided by 3. 

Incommensurable numbers are those which cannot be 
divided by the same number without a remainder. 
Thus, 3 and 7 are incommensurable. — Thomson^ s Prac. 
Arith., p. 81. 

41. + plus, signifies more ; — minus, signifies less ; 
= signifies equal to ; x signifies multiplied by ; -^ sig- 
nifies divided by ; > signifies greater ; < signifies less ; 
. • . signifies therefore, hence ; * . • signifies since, because ; 

( ) parenthesis ; and , vinculum. Numbers within 

a parenthesis, or under a vinculum, are subject to the 
same operation. — Stoddard'' s Complete Arith., p. 73. 

42. The factors of a number are the integers which, 
being multiplied together, will produce the number. — 
Milne's Practical Arith., p. 75. 

43. A prime factor is a factor that is a prime number. 
— Greenleafs Complete Arith., p. 54. 

44. The greatest common divisor of two or more num- 
bers is the greatest number that exactly divides each of 
them. — Whitens Complete Arith., p. 42. 

45. Two or more numbers are prime to each other 
when they have no common divisor. Thus 9 and 16 are 
prime to each other. — Id., p. 36. 

46. A multiple of a number is any number of times 
that number. — Fish's Arith., No. 2, p. 77. 

47. The least common multiple of two or more num- 
bers is the least number that will exactly divide each of 
them— M, p. 78. 

48. Ans., 73. — Brooks's Normal Arith., p. 77. 

49. Ans., 420. — Wliite's Complete Arith., p. 44. 

50. Cancellation is the process of rejecting or can- 



138 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

celling equal factors from both dividend and divisor. — 
3Iac Vicar's Prac. Arith., p. 73. 

51. Multiplying or dividing both dividend or divisor 
by the same number docs not alter the quotient. — Boh- 
inson's Higher Arith., Art. 117, Prin. III. 

52. A fraction is one or more of the equal parts of a 
unit. — Milne's Prac. Arith., p. 94. 

53. The unit of a fraction is the unit which has been 
divided into equal parts. — Id., p. 94. 

54. A fractional unit is one of the equal parts into 
which a unit is divided. — Id., p. 94. 

55. Fractions are divided with regard to their value, 
as compared with the unit, into proper and improper 
fractions ; with regard to their form, into simple, com- 
pound, and complex. — Brooks's Philosophy of Arith., p. 
431. 

56. A proper fraction is one whose numerator is less 
than its denominator ; and an improper fraction is one 
whose numerator is not less than its denominator. Thus 
I, f, etc., are proper fractions, and f, |, etc., are im- 
proper fractions. — Hagar's Common School Arith., 
p. 73. 

57. A simple fraction is one having but one numerator 
and one denominator, each of which is a whole number, 
and may be proper or improper ; as |, |. 

A compound fraction is a fraction of a fraction, as \ 

off. 

A complex fraction is a fraction which has o. fractional 

4- 2^ 
numerator and an integral denominator, as |-, -^. — 

Thomson's Practical Arith., pp. 100, 101. 

A complex fraction is an expression in the form of a 

fraction having a fraction in its numerator or denomi- 

I 5 4^ 
nator or both, thus : 5-, ^, 5^. — Ed. 



ARITHMETIC. 139 

58. The terms of a fraction are the numerator and de- 
nominator. The number below the line is called the de- 
nominator. It shows into how many equal parts the 
whole is divided, and gives name to the parts. The 
number above the line is called the numerator. It shows 
how many of the equal parts denoted by the denominator 
are taken. — QuacTcenbos' s Higher Arith., p. 92. 
• 59. The reciprocal of a number is a unit divided by 
that number. Thus the reciprocal of 4 is I. — Stod- 
dard's Complete Arith., p. 93. 

60. Keduction of fractions is the process of changing 
their form without altering their value. — Robinson's 
Complete Arith., p. 102. 

61. Fractions, to be added or subtracted, must be ab- 
stract or like denominate, and must have a common 
denominator. Only units of the same kind, whether 
fractional or integral, can be added together. — Stod- 
dard's Complete Arith., p. 103. 

62. A continued fraction is a fraction whose nume- 
rator is 1 and whose denominator is a whole number 
plus a fraction whose numerator is also 1 and whose de- 
nominator is a similar fraction, and so on. Example : 
13_1 

54 ~ 4 + 1 

6 + 1 

2. — Robinson's Progressive Higher Arith., 
p. 161. 

63. Ans., $1840.— /(f., J9. 115. 

64. Ans., 3f days.— M, p. 116. 

65. There are two methods of treating common frac- 
tions which may be distinguished as the inductive and 
deductive methods. By the inductive method we solve 
all the different cases by analysis, and derive the rules 
or methods of operation from these analyses by inference 
or induction. By the deductive method we first establish 



140 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

a few general principles and then derive all the rules and 
methods of operation from these general principles. — 
Brooks's Normal Arith., p. 88. 

G6. There are six cases of reduction : 1st. Numbers to 
fractions. 2d. Fractions to numbers. 3d. To higher 
terms. 4th. To lower terms. 5th. Compound to simple. 
6th. Complex to simple. — Id., p. 89. 

67. Fractions of which only the numerators are writ- 
ten, and the denominators are ten or some power of ten. 
— WentworWs Arith.y p. 11. 

A decimal fraction is one or more of the decimal di- 
visions of a unit. — Milne's Practical Arith., p. 129. 

68. A decimal fraction is a number of tenths, hun- 
dredths, thousandths, etc. A decimal is a decimal frac- 
tion expressed without its denominator. — Eaub's Com- 
plete Arith., p. 116, 

69. A decimal fraction may be expressed in the form 
of a common fraction, or by means of a decimal scale. 
When expressed by the scale, it is distinguished from the 
general meaning of the term decimal fraction by calling 
it a decimal. A decimal may thus be defined as a deci- 
mal fraction expressed by the decimal method of nota- 
tion. Thus, ^0, ■^, are decimal fractions, but not 
decimals ; while .5, .45, are both decimal fractions and 
decimals. — Brooks's Philosophy of Arith., p. 70. 

70. I. Write the numerator of the decimal as if it were 
an integer, writing ciphers in the place of vacant orders 
to give each significant figure its proper value, and place 
the decimal point before tenths. II. Kead the decimal 
as if it were an integer, and give it the name of the right 
hand order. — Robinson's Complete Arith., pp. 148, 
149. 

71. The denominator of any decimal will be 1, with 
as many ciphers annexed as there are decimal places in 
the numerator. — Raub's Complete Arith., p. 118. 



ARITHMETIC. 141 

72. 1. Decimals are governed by the same laws of no- 
tation as integers. Hence, 2. The value of any decimal 
figure depends upon the place it occupies at the right 
of the decimal sign. 3. Every removal of a decimal 
figure one place to the right diminishes its value tenfold. 
4. Every removal of a decimal figure one place to the 
left increases its value tenfold. 5. Ciphers may be an- 
nexed or rejected at the right of any decimal without 
changing its value. — EoMnson's Junior Class Arith., 
p. 153. 

73. A circulating decimal is a decimal in which a fig- 
ure, or set of figures, is constantly repeated in the same 
order; as, .333 +, .727272 +. — Robinson's Complete 
Arith., p. 166. 

74. Write the figures of the repetend for the numer- 
ator of a fraction, and as many 9's as there are places in 
the repetend for the denominator, and reduce to lowest 
terms. — Id, p. 168. 

75. Multiply one-half the price of a ton by the number 
of thousands and decimals of a thousand in the giyen 
quantity. — Id., p. 174. 

76. Ans. $21.09.— M,^. 174. 

77. A compound denominate number is a number con- 
sisting of two or more denominations of the same nature 
or kind, as 8 pounds 6 ounces. — Robinson's Junior Class 
Arith., p. 188. 

78. A standard unit is a unit of measure from which 
the other units of the same kind are derived. Thus the 
yard is the standard unit from which all measures of 
length are formed. — Milne's Prac. Arith., p. 156. 

79. A scale is the ratio by which numbers increase or 
decrease. Scales are either uniform or varying. — Id., 
p. 158. 

80. Measure is that by which extent, dimension, ca- 
pacity or amount is ascertained, determined according 



142 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

to some fixed standard. — Robinson's Higher Arith., p. 
164. 

81. Measures are of seven kinds : 1. Length. 2. Sur- 
face or area. 3. Solidity or capacity. 4. Weight or 
force of gravity. 5. Time. 6. Angles. 7. Money or 
value. — Id., p. 164. 

82. Money is the standard measure of value used in 
trade. — Hagar's Common School Arith., p. 118. 

83. The metric system is a system of weights and 
measures based upon a unit called a meter. — Id., p. 298. 

84. The meter is one ten-millionth part of the distance 
from the Equator to either pole, measured on the earth's 
surface at the level of the sea. — Id., p. 298. 

85. The longitude of a place is its distance, east or 
west, from a given meridian. — Broohs's Normal Arith., 
p. 181. 

86. The circumference of a circle contains 360", hence 
the sun appears to travel through 360° in 24 hours, and 
in 1 hour it travels ^ of 360" = 15° ; in 1 minute it 
travels -^ of 15° = 15', and in 1 second it travels -q\ of 
15' = 15".— Id., p. 183. 

87. Divide difference in longitude, expressed in de- 
grees, etc., by 15 ; the several quotients will be the dif- 
ference in time in hours, minutes, and seconds. — Milne's 
Prac. Arith., p. 201. 

88. Multiply the difference in time, expressed in 
hours, minutes and seconds, by 15 ; the several products 
will be the difference in longitude, in degrees, minutes, 
and seconds. — Id.,p. 201. 

89. Ans. 17° 45' east.—/^., j9. 201, Ex. 10. 

90. Since the earth rotates from west to east, all 
places east of a given meridian have the faster clock 
time, and all places west of it the slower clock time. — 
White's New Complete Arith. , p. 142. 

91. Taking with them a chronometer (an accurate 



ARITHMETIC. 143 

watch) set to mark the time at a given place as (Green- 
wich or Washington), they ascertain by observation on 
the sun with the sextant the time at the spot they are 
in, reduce the difference of time to the difference of 
longitude, and thus they find that they are so many de- 
grees east or west of the meridian of the place for which 
their chronometer is set. — Quadcenbos' s Higher Arith. , 
p. 2-^5. 

92. An aliquot part of a number is any number, in- 
tegral or mixed, which will exactly divide it. Thus, 2, 
2|, 3^, are aliquot parts of 10. — Mac Vicar's Practical 
Arith., p. 147. 

93. Percentage is a term applied to computations in 
which 100 is employed as a fixed measure. — BoMnson's 
Complete Arith., p. 265, 

94. In the operations of percentage there are five parts 
or elements, namely : Eate per cent.. Percentage, Base, 
Amount, and Difference. — Robinson's Higher AritJi., 
p. 260. 

95. Eate per cent., or Eate, is the decimal which de- 
notes how many hundredths of a number are to be taken. 
Percentage is that part of any number which is indicated 
by the rate. The Base is the number on which the per- 
centage is computed. The amount is the sum obtained 
by adding the percentage to the base. The Difference 
is the remainder obtained by subtracting the percentage 
from the base. — Id., pp. 260, 261. 

96. I. Given, the base and rate, to find the percent- 
age. Multiply the base by the rate. 

II. Given, the percentage and base, to find the rate. 
Divide the percentage by the base. 

III. Given, the percentage and rate, to find the base. 
Divide the percentage by the rate. 

IV. Given, the amount and rate, to find the base. 
Divide the amount by 1 plus the rate. 



144 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

V. Given, the difference and rate, to find the base. 
Divide the difference by 1 minus the rate. — Id., pp. 261, 
262, 263, 264, 265, 266. 

97. The principal applications of percentage are *. 
Profit and Loss, Commission and Brokerage, Capital and 
Stocks, Taxes, Customs, Insurance and Bankruptcy, in 
all of which time is not an element. Also, Interest, 
Discount, Exchange, Equation of Payments and Equa- 
tion of Accounts, in which time enters as an element or 
factor. — RauVs Complete Arith., p. 195. 

98. Ans. Lost 132.— /^.,j9. 201. 

99. Commission is an allowance made to an agent for 
selling goods for another. — Id., p. 201. 

100. A broker is one who buys and sells stocks, real 
estate, bonds and the like for another person. The com- 
mission allowed to a broker is called brokerage. — Id., p. 
202. 

101. Insurance is indemnity against loss or damage. 
It is of two kinds : Property Insurance and Personal In- 
surance. — Milne's Practical Arith., p. 278. 

102. The policy is the contract or agreement between 
the Insurance Company and the person insured. — Id., p. 
278. 

103. Property insurance is indemnity against loss or 
damage by fire, or Eire Insurance ; against loss or dam- 
age by casualties at sea, Marine Insurance ; and against 
loss or damage by fire, lightening, etc., to cattle, horses, 
etc., or Live Stock Insurance. — Id., p. 278. 

104. Personal Insurance is indemnity against loss of 
life, or Life Insurance ; against loss by accidents, or Ac- 
cident Insurance ; and against loss occasioned by sick- 
ness, or Health Insurance. — Id., p. 281. 

105. An Endowment Policy secures a sum of money 
at a specified time, or at death, if it occurs before the 
specified time. — Id., p. 281. 



ARITHMETIC. 145 

106. Interest is the money paid for the use of money, 
or its equivalent. — Stoddard's Complete Arith., p. 178. 

107. Usury is taking a rate per cent, above the legal 
rate. The law prohibits usury and makes it subject 
to a penalty. — Id., p. 178. 

108. Simple interest is interest on the principal only. 
Compound interest is interest on the principal and also 
on the interest, which at regular intervals of time, is 
added to the principal, forming a new principal. — 
Whitens Complete Arith., pp. 215, 338. 

109. Multiply the interest of the principal for one year 
by the exact number of days it has been on interest, 
divide the product by 365, the quotient will be the in- 
terest required. — Stoddard's Complete Arith., p. 184. 

110. A promissory note is a written or printed acknowl- 
edgment of a debt and a promise to pay it at a specified 
time, by the person who signs it. — Id., p. 194. 

111. A negotiable note is a promissory note which is 
made payable to bearer or the order of some person. 

112. $99 ^. 

Boston-, Mass., Dec. 10, 1872. 

One year after date, I promise to pay to the order of 
Thomas H. Standford, ninety-nine and -^ dollars, with 
interest at 6 per cent. Value received. W. H. Sawyer. 

{Id., p. 195, Form No. 3. 

113. Ans. $7.623.— M,^. 183. 

114. Ans. $61.3747 ^.—Id., p.,lU. 

115. Discount is an allow:ance made for the payment 
of a debt, note, or other obligation before it is due. — 
Fish's Arith., No. 2, p., 211. 

116. The true present worth of a debt payable at a 

future time without interest, is such a sum as, being put 

at legal interest, will amount to the debt when it becomes 

due.— /^., p. 211. 
10 



146 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, ' 

117. The true discount is the difference between the 
■whole debt and the true present worth. — Id., p. 211. 

118. Bank discount is the simple interest on the 
amount due, paid in advance, for three days more than 
the specified time. — Milne's Practical Arith., p. 240. 

119. A protest is a formal declaration in writing, 
made by a notary public, giving legal notice to the maker 
and the indorser of a note of its non-payment, — Fish's 
Arith., iVo. 2, p. 213. 

120. Ans. $0.3115.— Mac Vicar's Prac. Arith., p. IQS. 

121. A tax is a sum of money assessed on the property 
or income of an individual for the support of the govern- 
ment or for other public purposes. — Baud's Complete 
Arith., p. 210. 

122. An assessor is an officer appointed to estimate the 
value of property, prepare the assessment-rolls and ap- 
portion the taxes. — Id. , p. 210. 

123. Exchange is the process of remitting money from 
one place to another by drafts and bills of exchange. — 
Stoddard's Complete Arith., p. 218. 

124. A draft is a written order by one party to another 
to pay a certain sum of money to a third party or to his 
order. — Hagar's Common School Arith., p. 247. 

125. $500. 

New York, N. Y., January 1, 1873. 

Thirty days after sight, pay to James Peck, or order, 
five hundred dollars, and charge the same to my account. 

Henry King. 
To Moses Fox, 

No. 140 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 

[Stoddard's Complete Arith., p. 218. 

126. The course of exchange is the variation between 
the face of a draft, or bill, and its cost— ff agar' s Com- 
mon School Arith., p. 248. 

127. The person who signs the bill is called the drawer 



ARITHMETIC. 147 

or maker ; the person requested to pay is called the 
drawee ; the person to whom the money is to be paid, is 
the payee ; the person who has possession of the bill is 
called owner or holder. — Brooks's Normal Arith., p. 277. 

128. The indorsement of a bill is the writing upon the 
back of it, by which the payee transfers the payment to 
another. — Id., p. 'ill'^. 

129. The acceptance of a bill is the promise of the 
drawee, when presented, to pay it at maturity. The drawee 
accepts by writing across the face of the bill, "Accepted," 
with the date and his signature ; the bill is then called 
an Acceptance, and is of the character of a promissory 
note. — Id., p. 277. 

130. Duties or customs are taxes levied by the Govern- 
ment upon imported goods for the support of the Gov- 
ernment and protection of home industries. — Mac Vicar's 
Practical Arith. p. 169. 

131. A specific duty is a certain tax imposed upon an 
article without regard to its value. An ad valorem duty 
is a tax assessed at a certain per cent, upon the value of 
an article in the country from which it is brought. — 
Id. p. 169. 

132. A tarifE is a schedule giving the rates of duties 
fixed by law. — Id., p. 169. 

133. Equation of payments is the process of finding 
the mean or equitable time of payment of several sums, 
due at different times without interest. — Mobinson's 
Higher Arith., p. 348. 

134. Katio is the quotient of one number divided by 
another. — Olney's Practical Arith., p. 310. 

Katio is the relation between two like numbers ex- 
pressed by their quotient. — White's New Complete 
Arith., p. 276. 

135. A simple ratio is the ratio of two numbers ; as, 
5:8,or|:f 



148 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

A compound ratio is the product of two or more 
simple ratios. A compound ratio may be expressed in 
three ways, as follows : (5:6) X (7 : 10) ; or, | X -j^ ; 

136. The first term is called the antecedent, and the 
second term is called the consequent. — Hagafs Com- 
mon School Arith., p. 219. 

137. A proportion is an equality of ratios. Thus, 
4:2 = 6:3 expresses a proportion. — Id., p. 222. 

138. The extremes of a proportion are its first and 
fourth terms, and the means are its second and third 
terms. — Id., p. 222. 

139. I. The product of the extremes is equal to the 
product of the means. 

II. Either extreme is equal to. the product of the 
means divided by the other extreme. 

III. Either mean is equal to the product of the ex- 
tremes divided by the other mean. — Mac Vicar's Prac- 
tical Arith., p. 221. 

140. A compound proportion is a proportion which 
contains a compound ratio. — Id., p. 223. 

141. 1. Take for the third term the number which is 
of the same kind as the answer sought, and arrange the 
first and second terms of each ratio composing the com- 
pound ratio as in simple proportion. 

2. Divide the product of all the factors of the second 
and third terms, by the product of the factors of the 
first term, shortening the process by cancellation. — 
White's Complete Arith., p. 286. 

142. 8d. :20 d. I., 1193,4 
6hr. : 10 hr. [ 

$192 X 20 X 10 ^ ^800 Ans. 
8X6 

— RauVs Complete Arith., p. 177. 



ARITHMETIC. 149 

143. A partnership is the association of two or more 
individuals for the transaction of business ; the persona 
so associated are called partners. — Id., p. 264. 

144. Alligation treats of the mixing or combining of 
two or more articles of different values. — Id., p. 269. 

145. Alligation medial is the process of finding the 
average value or quality of the several articles. Alliga- 
tion alternate is the process of determining the propor- 
tion of the several articles used in forming a mixture. — 
Id., p. 269. 

146. Involution is the process of finding powers. 
Evolution is the process of finding roots. It is the reverse 
of involution. — MacVicar^s Prac. Arith., pp. 242, 243. 

147. A power is the product arising from multiplying 
a number by itself, or repeating it any number of times 
as a factor. A root is a factor repeated to produce a 
power. — Robinson's Progressive Higher Arith., p. 12. 

148. A perfect power is a number whose root can be 
found. An imperfect power is a number whose root can- 
not be found exactly. — Milne's Practical Arith., pp. 
319, 320. 

149. An exponent is a small figure placed at the right 
of a number to show how many times the number is 
taken as a factor. — Wentworth's Arith., p. 11. 

150. The roots of numbers are indicated by the char- 
acter, -y/, called the radical sign. If no figure is written 
in the opening of the sign, the square root is indicated ; 
if the figure 3 is placed there, as ^ the cube root ; if 4, 
the fourth root ; and so on. — Hagar's Common School 
Arith., p. 264. 

151. Ans. 216.— Id., p. 270, Ux. 5. 

152. Ans. 289.— 7(?.,^. 274, Ex. 4. 

153. The square of the hypothenuse equals the sum 
of the squares of the other two sides. — Stoddard's Com" 
plete Arith., p. 260. 



150 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

154. Ans. 120 feet.— /d, p. 260. 

155. Mensuration treats of the measurement of lines, 
surfaces, and solids. — Id., p. 282. 

156. A polygon is a figure bounded by straight lines. 
Id., p. 282. 

157. Multiply its base by half its altitude. — Id., p. 283. 

158. From half the sum of the three sides, subtract 
each side separately, multiply the half sura and these re- 
mainders together, and extract the square root of the 
product. — Id., p. 283. 

159. Multiply the base by the altitude. — Id., p. 284. 

160. Multiply the diameter by 3.1416.— /(Z.,jt). 286. 

161. In geometry it is shown that the circumference 
of a circle is very nearly 3.1416 times the diameter. — 
Olneyh Practical Arith., p. 335. 

162. Multiply its circumference by ^ of its diameter. — 
Stoddard's Complete Arith., p. 287. 

163. Multiply the diameter by the circumference of a 
great circle of the sphere. — RoUnsori's Complete Arith,., 
p. 472. 

164. Multiply the surface by \ of the diameter, or \ 
of the radius.— 7c?., p. 472. 

165. Multiply the area of the base by \ the altitude. — 
7c?., ^.470. 

166. Multiply the area of the base by the altitude. — 
7d,i?. 290. 

167. A series, or progression, is a succession of num- 
bers in which each succeeding number is formed from 
the preceding one by adding or subtracting the same 
quantity, or by the multiplication by a constant factor. — 
Hagar's Common School Arith., p. 304. 

168. An arithmetical progression is a series whose 
terms increase or decrease by a common difference. — 7c?., 
p. 304. 

169. 1. The first term (a). 2. The last term (?). 3. 



ARITHMETIC. 151 

The common difference {d). 4. The number of terms 
{n). 5. The sum of the terms (^S'). — RauVs Complete 
Ariih., p, 282. 

170. A geometrical progression is a series whose law of 
formation is a common multiplier. — Robinson's Higher 
Arith., p. 403. 

171. 1. The first term (a). 2. The last term (J). 3. 
The ratio (r). 4. The number of terms («). 5. The 
sum of all the terms {S), — Robinson's Complete Arith. ^ 
p. 444. 

172. l=a + {n-l)d; S = ^{a + I). 

— Robinson's Complete Algebra, p. 324 

173. l = ar^-';8= ^I:i±.—Id.,p.3d3. 

r — 1 

174. An annuity is a sum of money to be paid annu- 
ally , or at regular intervals of time. — Hagar's Common 
School Arith., p. 308. 

175. The rules of arithmetical progression will solve 
all problems in annuities at simple interest. Questions 
in annuities at compound interest can be solved by the 
rules of geometrical progression. — Robinson's Progress- 
ive Higher Arith., pp. ^13, ^1^. 



152 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. Of what does Orthography treat ? 

2. What is an elementary sound ? 

3. How many elementary sounds in the English 
language ? 

4. How are these sounds classified ? 

5. What are vocals ? 

6. What are subvocals ? 

7. What are aspirates ? 

8. Define letter. 

9. How are letters classified ? 

10. What is a vowel ? 

11. Name the vowels. 

12. What is a consonant ? 

13. Name the consonants. 

14. Define diphthong. 

15. When is a letter silent ? 

16. What is a digraph ? 

17. What is a triphthong ? 

18. What is meant by the name of a letter ? 

19. What is the power of a letter ? 

20. What is the difiference between a letter and an 
elementary sound ? 

21. How may the subvocals and aspirates be classified? 

22. Give a table of elementary sounds. 

23. What are liquids ? 

24. According to quantity or rhythm, how are sounds 
classified ? 



ORTEOaBAPET. 153 

25. What is a short sound ? 

26. What is a long sound ? 

27. What is a mute ? 

28. Name the mutes. 

29. When is a letter said to be silent ? 

30. What are double consonants ? 

31. Name the double consonants. 

32. What organs are employed in the formation of 
sounds ? 

33. Do all authors give the same number of elementary 
sounds ? 

34. Why do authors differ ? 

35. Define syllable. 

36. What is essential to every syllable ? 

37. 'How many syllables will every word contain ? 

38. How are words classified according to the number 
of syllables ? 

39. What is accent ? 

40. What is syllabication ? 

41. What is a word ? 

42. What is a root or radical ? 

43. How are words classified ? 

44. What is a primitive word ? 

45. What is a derivative word ? 

46. What is a compound word ? 

47. What is a simple word ? 

48. How are the parts of a compound word separated? 

49. What is spelling ? 

50. Give some of the principal rules for spelling. 



154 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. Orthograpby treats of elementary sounds, the letters 
which represent them, and the combination of letters 
into syllables and words. — Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 14. 

2. An elementary sound is one that cannot be divided 
so as to be represented by two or more letters. — Wright's 
Analytical Orthography, p. 19. 

3. In the English language there are forty-one ele- 
mentary sounds, and every spoken English word is com- 
posed of some of these sounds. — Id., p. 19. 

4. These sounds are divided into three classes, — vocals, 
subvocals, and aspirates. — Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 14. 

5. Vocals are those sounds which are made with the 
vocal organs open, and consist of pure tones only. They 
are also called Tonics. — Harvey's Eng. Gram., p. 9. 

6. Subvocals are those sounds which are obstructed 
by the vocal organs, in the process of articulation. They 
are sometimes called Suhtonics. — Id., p. 9. 

7. Aspirates are mere emissions of breath, articulated 
by the lips, tongue, teeth, and palate. They are some- 
times called Atonies. — Id., p. 9. 

8. A letter is a mark, or character, used to represent 
an elementary sound of the human voice. — Bullions' 
Analytical and Practical Eng. Gram., p. 4. 

9. In respect to their forms, letters are divided into 
capitals and small letters. In respect to the sounds 
they represent, into vowels and conso7iants. In respect 
to the application of these sounds, into permanent ^ va- 
riable, and silent. — Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 18. 



ORTEOGRAPHY. 155 

10. A vowel is a letter which represents an unob- 
structed sound; and, in a word or syllable, may be 
sounded alone. — Bullions' Gram., p. 4. 

11. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and w, and y not 
before a vowel sounded in the same syllable, as in law, 
bay. — Id., p. 4. 

12. A consonant is a letter which represents an ob- 
structed sound ; and, in a word or syllable, is never 
sounded alone, but always in connection with a vowel. 
— /^.,jo. 4. 

13. The consonants are, h, c, d, f, g, h, j, 1c, I, m, n, 
P, q, r, s, t, V, X, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded 
in the same syllable, as in war, youth. — Id., p. 4. 

14. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one 
sound, oi, in oil; ou, in found. — Id., p. 4. 

15. When a letter in a word is not used in pronunci- 
ation, it is called a silent letter, as h in hour; a in 
bread; e in mate. — Id., p. 4. 

16. A union of two vowels in the same syllable, only 
one of which is sounded, is called a digraph, and some- 
times an improper diphthong ; oa in boat ; ou in cowt. 
— Id., p. 5. 

17. A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one 
sound, as eau in beauty. — Id., p. 5. 

18. The name of a letter is the term or application by 
which it is known. — Greene's English Gram., p. 22. 

19. The power of a letter is the elementary sound 
which it represents. — Id., p. 18. 

20. The letter is an arbitrary mark addressed to the 
eye ; an elementary sound is always addressed to the ear. 
— Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 18. 

21. Subvocals and aspirates may be divided into six 
classes, viz. : Labials, which are made by the lips ; Lin- 
guals, made by the tongue ; Linguo-dentals, made by the 
tongue and teeth ; Linguo-nasals, articulated by tho 



156 



THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



tongue, the sound passing through the nose ; Palato- 
nasals, made by the palate, the sound passing through 
the nose ; Palatals, made by the palate. — Harvey's Eng. 
Gram., p. 9. 

22. 



5. TABLE OF 


ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 






Vocals. 




a long, as in 


late. 




i long, as in time. 


& short, ** 


hat. 




i short " tin. 


a middle, " 


ask. 




long, *' cold. 


a Italian, " 


arm. 




6 short, " hdt. 


a broad, *' 


all. 




00 long, ** ooze. 


i double " 


cdre. 




do short, " bo'ok. 


e long, " 


eve. 




u long, ** lute. 


€ short, " 


m. 




u short, " Clip. 


g " 


grr. 






Subvocals 


, 




Aspirates. 






Labials 




b, as in bib. 






p, as in lip. 


V, " save 


!. 




f, " life. 


w, " way 


. 




wh, " when. 


m, " am. 









Linguo-dentals. 
d, as in lid. t, as in tat. 

th, " thou. th, " thin, 

j, " jar. ch, *' rich, 

z, ** size. s, " hiss, 

z, ** azure. sh, " hush. 



g, as in nag 



1, as in lull. 



roar. 



Palatals. 

k, as in kick, 
h. " how. 
Linguals. 
(Have no corresponding aspirates.) 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 157 

Linguo-nasal. 
n, as in man. (Has no corresponding aspirates.) 

Palato-nasals. 
ng, as in song. (Has no corresponding aspirates.) — 
Id., pp. 9, 10. 

23. The sounds represented by I, m, n, and r, are 
sometimes called liquids, because they easily unite with 
other subvocals or aspirates. — Id., p. 10. 

24. According to quantity or rhythm, sounds are short 
and long. — Rhetorical Oram, of the Eng. Lang., Crit- 
tenden, p. 379. 

25. The short sound is one that is uttered with an ex- 
plosive effort; as in pm, pen, hat, sit. — Greene's Eng. 
Gram., p. 15. 

26. The long sound is one that can be be protracted 
at pleasure ; as in vaay ay, hee ee. — Id., p. 15. 

27. A mute is a consonant that cannot be prolonged ; 
as, p, Tc, t. — RauVs Practical Eng. Gram., p. 14. 

28. The mutes are i, c hard, d, g hard, h, p, q, t. — 
Id., p. 14. 

29. A letter which has no sound when used in a word 
is said to be silent. — Id., p. 14. 

30. Double consonants consist of two consonants writ- 
ten together in the same syllable, representing a single 
elementary sound. — Harvey's Eng. Gram., p. 12. 

81. They are ch, chaise ; gh, laugh ; pih physic ; sh, 
hush ; th, thine ; wh, when ; ng, sing. — Id., p. 12. 

32. The organs chiefly employed in the formation of 
sounds are the lips, tongue, teeth, gums, palate, and 
throat. — Bullions' Gram., p. 7. 

33. Some authors give thirty-nine, some forty, some 
forty-one, and some more. — Rhetorical Gram., Critten- 
den, p. 376. 

34. Because they do not agree among themselves con- 



158 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

cerning the identity or the simplicity, the sameness or 
the singleness, of some of the sounds in question ; and 
also because it is the practice of all, or nearly all, to ad- 
mit as elementary sounds some sounds which differ from 
each other only in length or shortness, and some which 
are not conceived to be entirely simple in themselves. — 
Broiun's Eng. Oram., p. 26. 

35. A syllable is a letter or a combination of letters, the 
sound of which is uttered with one impulse of the voice. 
Example: — Mat, mat-ter, ma-te-ri-al. — Greene's Eng. 
Gram., p. 25. 

36. A vowel is essential to every syllable. — Wright's 
OrthograpJig , p. 55. 

37. AVords always have as many syllables as they con- 
tain vowels or diphthongs that are sounded. — Id., p. 55. 

38. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable j a 
word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three 
syllables, a trisyllable ; a word of four or more syllables, 
a polysyllable. — Brown's Eng. Gram., p. 28. 

39. Accent is a stress of voice placed upon a particu- 
lar syllable. It may be either primary or secondary, 
the primary being the more forcible. — Harvey's Eng, 
Gram., p. 22. 

40. The division of words into syllables is called syllab- 
ication. — Bullio7is' Gram., p. 10. 

41. A word is one or more syllables spoke nor written 
as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. 
— Broivn's Eng. Gram., p. 29. 

42. A root, or radical, is either a word or that part 
of a word which is modified by a prefix or suffix. Ex- 
ample : — Fair, un-fair, fair-ness. — Greene's Eng. 
Gram., p. 29. 

43. Words are distinguished as primitive or derivU" 
tive, and as simple or compound. — Brown's Eng. Gram., 
j9. 29. 



ORTEOQBAPHY. 159 

44. A word in no way derived from a root is a primi- 
tive word. Example : — Fornif harm. — Oreene's Eng. 
Gram., 30. 

45. A word formed by joining to a root a prefix or a 
suffix, to modify its meaning, is a derivative word. Ex- 
ample: — Ee-form, har-m-less. — Id., p. 31. 

46. A word formed by writing two or more entire 
words is a compound word. — Id., p. 31. 

47. A simple word is one that is not compounded, not 
composed of other words. — Brown's Eng. Gram., p. 30. 

48. The parts of those compounds which have been 
long in use are generally united closely. Example: — 
Nevertheless, sunrise. In others, the hyphen (-) is used 
to separate the parts. Example : — Labor-saving. — 
Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 31. 

49. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their 
correct letters properly arranged. — RauVs Practical 
Eng. Gram., p. 2:^. 

50. Rule I. — Monosyllables ending in /, I, or 5 pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as 
staff, spell, mill — except if, of, as, gas, has, was, yes, is, 
his, this, us, thus. 

EuLE II. — Words ending in any other consonants than 
/, I, or s, do not double the final letter — except add, 
odd, ebb, egg, inn, err, hunn, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz. 

EuLE III. — Monosyllables, and words accented on the 
last syllable, when they end with a single consonant, 
preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonants 
before a suffix that begins with a vowel ; as fog, foggy ; 
begin, beginner — x is an exception. 

EuLE IV. — A final consonant, when it is not preceded 
by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last 
syllable, should remain single before a suffix : toil, toil- 
ing ; visit, visited, visiting. 

EuLE V. — Silent e, when the final letter must be 



160 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

dropped before the addition Df suffixes beginning with 
a vowel ; as, debate, debatable — except words ending in 
ce and ge ; as, peace, peaceable ; outrage, outrageous. 

Rule VI. — When a word ending in silent e has a suffix 
added to it beginning with a consonant, the e is retained 
— except abridge, acknowledge, argue, awe, due, Judge, 
lodge, true, whole. 

Rule VII. — When a termination is added to a word 
ending in y, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed 
to i ; as try, trial — except when the termination ing is 
added. 

Rule VIII. — Compound words generally retain the 
orthography of the simple words of which they are com- 
posed. — Wright's Analytical Orthography, p. 116. 



BEADING. 161 



QUESTIONS. 
READING. 

1. What is reading ? 

2. What is thought ? 

3. What are ideas ? 

4. In what ways do we get thought ? 

5. In how many ways do we get thought by language ? 

6. How does oral reading differ from silent reading or 
study ? 

7. Give a definition of oral reading. 

8. In teaching reading what is the main point to 
which the attention of the teacher should be directed ? 

9. What advantages are secured by so doing ? 

10. What is the principal function of oral reading in 
school ? 

11. In what does the teaching of reading essentially 
consist ? 

12. What devices may be used in teaching reading ? 

13. How does a child learn to talk ? 

14. What does this suggest as to how he shall be 
taught to read ? 

15. How will the child learn to read ? 

16. Name the five methods of teaching reading. 

17. Define the alphabet method. 

18. Define the word method. 

19. Describe the sentence method. 

20. What is the phonetic method ? 

21. Define the phonic method. 



163 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

22. In each of these methods what is regarded as the 
unit ? 

23. What objection exists to the alphabet and phonic 
methods ? 

24. What advantages are claimed for the sentence 
method ? 

25. What criticism has been passed upon this method 
or system ? 

26. What is the true method of teaching reading ? 

27. Give some rules to be observed in the first steps in 
teaching reading. 

28. When should the use of objects, pictures, etc., in 
teaching words, be discontinued ? 

29. What is the use of phonic analysis in teaching 
reading ? 

30. In primary reading when should the change be 
made from the script of the blackboard to print ? 

31. How should book reading be tested ? 

32. What will indicate the proper standard of excel- 
lence ? 

33. What is articulation ? 

34. What is phonetic analysis ? 

35. What is an elementary sound ? 

36. How may good articulation be acquired ? 

37. What is elocution ? 

38. Define accent. 

39. Define emphasis. 

40. How is the accented syllable designated ? 

41. What are the kinds of accent ? 

4?. What effect upon the meaning of a word does 
change of accent sometimes have ? 

43. What is the object of emphasis ? 

44. How is this accomplished ? 

45. How is the proper emphasis determined ? 

4G. How many kinds of emphasis, and what are they ? 



READING. 163 

47. How are emphatic words printed ? 

48. What effect upon the sense of a passage is pro- 
duced by changing the place of the emphasis ? 

49. What are inflections ? 

50. What is the rising inflection ? 

51. What is the falling inflection ? 
53. What is the circumflex ? 

53. How are these inflections indicated ? 

54. Give some rules for the use of inflections. 

55. What is a series ? 

56. What is a commencing series? A concluding series ? 

57. What is the monotone ? 

58. What is modulation ? 

59. In the delivery of what kind of passages is the 
monotone properly employed ? 

60. What is meant by pitch ? What are its degrees ? 

61. In what does quantity consist ? 

62. What is meant by quality ? 

63. What are the qualities of the voice mostly used in 
reading or speaking ? 

64. What is a pure tone, and what is it adapted to 
express ? 

65. Describe the orotund. 

66. What is the aspirated tone, and for what used ? 

67. Describe the guttural quality. 

68. What is a pause ? 

69. What are rhetorical pauses ? 

70. Of what value is the proper observance of pauses 
to elocution ? 

71. Grive rules for the use of pauses in reading. 

72. Can any definite rule be given for the length of 
either rhetorical or grammatical pauses as observed in 
reading ? 

73. As to its comparative importance, how should the 
teacher consider the reading exercise ? 



164 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS. 
READINa. 

1. Reading is getting thought by means of written or 
printed words arranged in sentences. — Parlcefs Talks 
on Teaching, p. 26. 

2. Thought may be defined as ideas in relation. — Id., 
p. 26. 

3. Ideas are either sense products or derivations from 
these products. — Id., p. 26. 

4. We get thought, first, by seeing objects in their re- 
lations ; second, by thinking of things in their relations 
without their presence ; third, by seeing pictures or 
drawings of objects in their relations ; fourth, by lan- 
guage. — Id., p. 26. 

5. We get thought by language in two ways : first, by 
the spoken language ; and, second, by the written or 
printed language — Id., p. 26. 

6. The action of the mind in reading may or may not 
be followed by the oral expression of the thought. In 
the former case it is oral reading ; in the latter it is si- 
lent reading or study. — Boston Method of Primary Read- 
ing, p.d. 

7. If we comprehend oral reading in our definition, 
we should say that reading is the getting and giving of 
thought by means of words arranged in sentences. — 
Parker's Talks on Teaching, p. 27. 

8. The main point to which the attention of the 
teacher should be directed at every step, from first to 
last in the teaching of reading, is this : Are the pupils 



READING. 165 

led to get tJie thought ? — Boston Method, p. 3. {8e6 
No. 6.) 

9. If the thought be first grasped, the proper oral 
expression of it will be a comparatively easy matter ; 
for then inflection and emphasis will naturally spring 
from the thought, just as in talking ; but if, on the 
other hand, the thought is not in the mind, the inflec- 
tions and emphasis will be only weak imitations of those 
given by the teacher. — Id., p. 3. 

10. It should be considered that the principal func- 
tion of oral reading in schools is to afford the teacher 
the means of knowing whether the thought is fully and 
correctly in the mind of the pupil. — Id., p. 4. 

11. The teaching of reading consists essentially in 
evoking acts of association between written or printed 
words and their appropriate ideas. — Id., p. 4. 

12. The best method of teaching reading will include 
all those devices, and only those, which aid efficiently in 
causing associative acts between ideas and written or 
printed words. — Id., p. 4. 

13. His learning to read consists, ^r^/, in associating 
spoken words heard by him with certain ideas in his 
mind ; and, secondly, in imitating spoken words and 
idioms until he can use them in speech. — Id., p. 5. 

14. This suggests very distinctly the course to be 
pursued after he has entered school. In learning to 
read, he has merely to learn to use written or printed 
words for the same purpose as that for which he has 
already learned to use spoken words. — Id., p. 5. 

15. He will first, associate the written or printed 
words which he sees with the corresponding ideas in his 
mind ; and, secondly, he will imitate written words 
(copy them with the pencil) until he can use them to 
express his ideas and thoughts. — Id., p. 5. 

16. The alphabet, the word, the sentence, the pho- 



166 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

netic, and the phonic methods. — Sheldon's Manual for 
Teachers, p. 13. 

17. By this method the children are first taught the 
names of the letters, and they begin, at once, to spell 
all new words by these names. — Id., p. 13. 

18. In this method we begin by teaching words, 
which the children learn to recognize as wholes, and as 
the representations of ideas, — Id., p. 13. 

19. This consists simply in treating whole sentences 
as we treat words in the word method ; the sentence 
bearing the same relation to the thought that the word 
does to the idea. The child being in possession of a 
thought, the sentence representing that thought is placed 
before him, and he learns to recognize it as a unit — Id., 
p. 14. 

20. In this method as many distinct characters are 
employed as there are sounds to be represented. All the 
ordinary letters of the alphabet are used, and to these 
are added sixteen characters ; making in all, forty-two 
letters or characters. — Id., p. 14. 

21. This differs from the phonetic method in that 
only unmodified letters of the common alphabet are 
employed. The mode of teaching is the same. — Id., 

J9.1G. 

22. The alphabet method takes the letter as the unit. 
The phonic and phonetic methods take an elementary 
sound as the unit. The word method takes the word as 
the unit, and the sentence method takes the sentence as 
the unit. — Educational Gazette, Vol. I., No. 4:, p. 52. 

23. There is no doubt that any attempt to separate the 
written word into parts, or to combine the parts of a 
word into a whole, directly and effectually hinders the 
acts of association, and therefore obstructs the action of 
the child's mind in learning to read. — Par Jeer's Talks on 
Teaching, p. 33. 



READING. 167 

There is an objection to both methods — they are 
wrong in principle, they apply synthesis to the mastery 
of form by the eye. Now synthesis is essential as a 
means of reproduction by the hand, but form, as a thing 
to be known, must be regarded first as a whole. In fact 
it is a natural process to observe the whole before the 
parts. — Gill's School 3fanagement, p. 141. 

24. The advantages claimed for this method over 
others : First, it is a very natural way — teaching the 
child to read very much as he learned to talk. Second, 
the attention of the child is directed to the expression of 
the thought, hence he reads easily and naturally. 
Third, it makes the child thoughtful, and hence culti- 
vates his intelligence. — De Graff's School-Room Guide, 
p. 21. 

25. The system does not enforce upon pupils a rapid 
increase in their knowledge of words. The habit of 
mind is timid and feeble which pupils acquire who are 
taught to depend upon comprehending the sentence as a 
preparation to know the meaning of its words ; pupils 
fail to become powerful to think, because they are con- 
scious of their deficiencies in a knowledge of the con- 
stituent elements of sentences, — Education, Vol. IV., 
No. 1, pp. 50, 51. [Article 07i Sentence System ly J. H. 
Hoose, Ph. D.\ 

26. The fact is, that the object, word, sentence, 
script, and phonic methods form one true method in 
teaching reading. Each should be used in its own time, 
place and proportion, in such a manner as to arouse 
and strengthen the five faculties of the mind instead of 
one. The diflficulty is in using one method to the exclu- 
sion of all others. — Parlcefs Talks on Teaching, pp. 
53, 54. 

27. 1. Carefully introduce each new word, that is, the 
name of an object, action, quality of an object or modi- 



168 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ifier of an action, by first presenting the object, sketch, 
or picture of the object, or by bringing the idea of it 
into the child's mind through conversation or ques- 
tioning. 3. Words that do not recall ideas, except in 
their relations, should always be taught in phrases or 
sentences. 3. Make every thought and its expression 
real to the child, by suiting the action to the word. 
4. Never allow a child to use an unnatural tone in 
reading. 5 Let the child get the thought by means of 
the written words, and not by hearing the sentence 
read. 6. The emphasis, inflections, and pauses should 
spring from the thought in the child's mind, and not 
be imitations of the teacher's voice. 7. Slow, monoton- 
ous pronouncing, and quick, explosive utterances, should 
both be avoided. 8. Never allow carelessness or guessing. 
9, Keep up in your pupils a keen interest for words : — 
(1) by teaching words very slowly at first. (2) By 
putting the words taught into many different sentences. 
(3) By writing short sentences, and by making very 
slight changes in them — generally of a single word — so 
that the pupils will be successful every time they try to 
read a sentence. (4) By patience in waiting until the 
pupil grasps the thought. Be especially patient with 
dull children. 10. Teach words slowly and surely ; 
review often ; know, at every step, how many and what 
words have been really learned. A few words, well taught, 
is a far better result than one hundred words jjoorly 
taught.— ^os^ow Method, pp. 20, 21, 23. {See No. 6.) 

28. When a child does not need the stimulus of ob- 
jects, pictures, etc., then their use should cease. Any 
good teacher will not fail to observe when this time comes 
to the child. — ParJcer^s Talks on Teaching, pp. 45, 46. 

29. Its principal use is to give the child the power of 
pronouncing new words by the help of the analogies of 
the language. — Boston Method, p. 12. {See No. 6.) 



READma. 169 

30. It is believed that from one hundred to one hun- 
dred and fifty words may profitably be taught in script, 
on the blackboard before the change is made from script 
to print. — Id., p. 17. 

31. In book-reading the tests should be from books 
the pupils have never read. — Id., p. 30. 

32. The proper standard of excellence is indicated by 
these two questions : — 1. Has the reader correctly appre- 
hended the thought ? 2. Has he used correct pronuu- 
ciation, distinct articulation, and natural tones ? — Id., 
p.^0. 

33. Articulation is the utterance of the elementary 
sounds of a language, and of their combinations in 
words. — Harvey's Graded Fifth Reader, p. 10. 

34. Phonetic analysis is the separation of syllables 
and words into the elementary sounds of which they are 
composed. — Id., p. 10. 

35. An elementary sound is a simple, distinct sound 
made by the organs of speech. — Id., p. 10. 

36. To acquire a good articulation, attention must be 
paid to exercises upon elementary sounds and their com- 
binations, and to the phonetic analysis of words. — Id., 
p. 10. 

37. Elocution is the art of delivering written or ex- 
temporaneous composition with force, propriety and 
ease. — Sanders' Union Fourth Reader, p. 13. 

38. Accent is that stress of voice by which one sylla- 
lle of a word is made more prominent than others. — 
Id., p. 21. 

39. Emphasis is that stress of voice by which one or 
more words of a sentence are distinguished above the 
rest. — Id., p. 21. 

40. The accented syllable is designated thus '.{'); as, 
com-mand'-ment. — Id., p. 21. 

41. Words of more than two syllables generally have 



1^0 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

two or more of them accented. The more forcible stress 
of voice, is called the primary accent ; and the less for- 
cible the secondary accent. — Id., p. 21. 

42. The change of accent on the same word often 
changes its meaning ; as, con'-duct, behavior ; con-duct', 
to lead. — Id., p. 21. 

43. The object of emphasis is to attract particular 
attention to the word or phrase upon which it is placed, 
thus indicating that the idea intended to be conveyed 
depends very much more upon that word or phrase. — 
Harvey's Graded Fifth Reader, p. 32. 

44. This is sometimes accomplished by an unusual 
lowering of the voice, even to a whisper, but most fre- 
quently by an increased stress laid upon the word or 
phrase to be emphasized. — Id., p. 32. 

45. In order to determine the proper emphasis to be 
given, the reader or speaker must himself thoroughly 
comprehend the ideas and feelings to be expressed. — 
American Educational Reader, No. ^, p. 11. 

46. Emphasis is either absolute or antithetic. It is 
absolute when it depends upon the importance of a 
particular idea without direct reference to any other. 
It is antithetic when it depends upon the comparison or 
contrast of one thought or fact with another. — Id., p. 11. 

47. Emphatic words are often printed in italics. 
When, however, different degrees of emphasis are to be 
denoted, the higher degrees are designated by the use 
of capitals, larger or smaller, according to the de- 
gree of intensity. — Sanders' Union Fourth Reader, 
p. 22. 

48. The sense of a passage is varied by changing the 
place of the emphasis ; as, Has James seen his brother 
to-day ? No ; but he has seen his sister. Has James 
seen his brother to-day 1 No ; but he saw him yester- 
day. — Id,, p. 25. 



READING. 171 

49. Inflections are turns or slides in the yoice used in 
reading or speaking. — Id., p. 25. 

50. The rising inflection is an upward turn or slide of 
the voice, used when the voice ends higher than it be- 
gins ; as. Are you going Tiomef — Am. Ed. Reader, No. 
h,p. 9. 

51. The falling inflection is a downward turn or slide 
of the voice, used when the voice ends lower, than it be- 
gins ; as, Wlien are you going? — Id., p. 9. 

52. The circumflex indicates the union of the rising 
and the falling inflections on the same word. — Id., 
p. 9. 

53. The rising inflection is denoted by the acute ac- 
cent, thus ( ' ) ; and the falling inflection by the grave 
accent, thus ( ' ). When the circumflex begins with the 
rising and ends with the falling inflection, it is denoted 
thus (^); and when it begins with the falling and ends 
with the rising inflection, it is denoted thus (cj); as, 
Can the ddve live with the hawTc 9 — Id., pp. 9,"10. 

54. 1. Emphatic words and words denoting a comple- 
tion of the sense, generally require the falling inflection. 

2. Words concluding negations and direct questions, 
or words used by way of direct address, require the ris- 
ing inflection ; but, if repeated emphatically, the falling 
inflection is proper. 

3. Words concluding indirect questions, require the 
falling inflection ; but, if repeated emphatically, the ris- 
ing inflection is proper. 

4. Each member of a commencing series generally re- 
quires the falling inflection, except the last, which 
should have the rising inflection. 

5. Each member of a concluding series generally re- 
quires the falling inflection, except the last but one, 
which should have the rising inflection. — Fertich^s In- 
structive Elocution, pp. 24, 25, 26, 27. 



173 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

55. A series is a succession of particulars in a dis- 
course. — Id., p. 26. 

56. A series in the beginning or middle of a sen- 
tence is called a commencing series. A series which 
concludes a sentence is called a concluding series. — Id., 
p. 36. 

57. The monotone is an unvaried tone throughout a 
sentence or discourse. — Id., p. 31. 

58. Modulation consists in the adaptation of speech 
to the sentiment it is designed to convey. The various 
changes or modulations are quality, pitch, force, time, 
and slides or inflections. — Practical Elocution, J. W. 
Shoemalcer, p. 113. 

59. It is employed in the delivery of passages that are 
expressive of awe, reverence, or sublimity. — Am. Ed. 
Reader, No. 5, p. 11. 

60. Pitch of voice has reference to its degree of eleva- 
tion. Although the voice is capable of as many varia- 
tions in speaking, as are marked on the musical scale, 
yet for all the purposes of ordinary elocution, it will be 
sufficiently exact if we make but three degrees of varia- 
tion, viz., the low, the middle, and the high. — Union 
Fourth Reader, Sanders', p. 36. 

61. Quantity is two-fold ; consisting in fullness or vol- 
ume of sound, as soft, or loud ; and in time as slow, or 
quick. The former has reference to stress, the latter to 
movement. — Id., p. 37. 

63. Quality has reference to the kind of sound ut- 
tered.— /^. , ^. 39. 

63. The qualities of voice mostly used in reading or 
speaking, and which should receive the highest degree 
of culture, are the pure tone, the orotund, the aspir- 
ated, and the guttural. — Id., p. 39. 

64. 1. The pure tone is a clear, smooth, sonorous flow 
of sound, usually accompanied with the middle pitch of 



READING. 173 

voice, and is adapted to express emotions of joy, cheer- 
fulness, love, and tranquility. — Id., p. 40. 

65. 2. The orotund is a full, deep, round, and pure 
tone of voice, peculiarly adapted in expressing sublime 
diwdi pathetic emotions. — Id., p. 40. 

%Q. 3. The aspirated tone of voice is not a pure, vocal 
sound, but rather a forcible breathing utterance, and is 
used to express amazement, fear, terror, anger, revenge, 
remorse, a,T\^ fervent emotions. — Id., p. 40. 

67. 4. The gutteral quality is a deep, aspirated tone 
of voice, used to express aversion, hatred, loathing, and 
contempt. — Id., p. 40. 

68. A pause, or rest, is a suspension of the voice in 
reading or speaking, in order to express the meaning 
more clearly, or give force to the expression. — Am. Ed. 
Reader, No. 5, p. 14. 

69. Ehetorical pauses are those which are frequently 
required by the voice in reading and speaking, although 
the construction of the passage admits of no grammati- 
cal pause. — Sanders' Union Fourth Reader, p. 45. 

70. Elocution depends, in great measure, for its spirit, 
force, and expressiveness, upon a judicious use of pauses, 
both as to their position and length. — Am. Ed. Reader, 
JSfo. 5, p. 14. 

71. 1. The subject of a sentence, especially if long 
or involved, should be followed by a pause ; as. That 
Columbus discovered America — is a well-known fact. 
2. The object of a verb, when it consists of several 
words, should be preceded by a pause ; as, " Tliey tell 
ws — tJiat we are weak." 3. Emphatic words should be 
followed by a pause, varying in length according to the 
degree of the emphasis ; as, John — not William — is de- 
serving of censure. 4. When an emphatic word closes 
the sentence, it should be preceded by a pause ; as. His 
sentence was — death. — Id., p. 14. 



174 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

72. No definite rule can be given with reference to 
the length of the rhetorical, or grammatical pause. 
The correct taste of the reader or speaker must deter- 
mine it. For the Toice should sometimes be suspended 
much longer at the same pause in one situation than in 
another. — Sanders' Union Fourth Reader, p. 46. 

73. Teacher, whatever else you may teach, do not con- 
sider the reading exercise an unimportant one. Teach 
and train the pupils to be readers. It is the art of arts, 
and in it are the germs of growth and development. — 
De Graff's School-room Guide, _p. 43. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 175 



QUEST JONS. 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. What is language ? 

2. What opinions are maintained as to the origin of 
language ? 

3. What causes diversities in languages ? 

4. What is the English language ? 

5. What is grammar ? 

6. Of what does English grammar treat ? 

7. What are the divisions of grammar ? 

8. Of Avhat does orthography treat ? 

9. Of what does etymology treat ? 

10. Of what does syntax treat ? 

11. Of what does prosody treat ? 

12. How are words classified, and what are these 
classes called ? 

13. Name the parts of speech. 

14. What is meant by inflection ? 

15. Define noun. 

16. In what way may all words and characters be- 
come nouns ? 

17. Name the kinds of nouns and define each. 

18. Name classes of common nouns. 

19. What is a collective noun ? an abstract noun ? 
30. What is a verbal noun ? 

21. What is personification ? 

22. When does a common noun become proper ? 

23. What are the accidents of nouns ? 

24. Define person. 



176 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

25. How are sexes distinguished ? 

26. What are genders ? 

27. What genders have nouns ? 

28. How is the plural of nouns generally formed ? 

29. How do figures and letters form their plurals ? 

30. How are compound words pluralized ? 

31. How is a term composed of a proper name pre- 
ceded by a title pluralized ? 

32. How are the plurals of foreign nouns formed ? 

33. Mention some nouns without a plural ; some 
without a singular ; and some that are either singular 
or plural. 

34. Define case. 

35. When is a noun in the nominative case ? 

36. What is the use of the possessive case ? 

37. When is the objective case used ? 

38. How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? 

39. How formed in the irregular of nouns ending 
in s ? 

40. Upon what point does a difference of opinion pre- 
vail ? 

41. Define an adjective. 

42. Into what two classes may adjectives be divided ? 

43. How may they be still farther divided ? 

44. What is a descriptive adjective ? 

45. What is a definitive adjective ? 

46. Define common adjective. 

47. Define participial adjective. 

48. What is a compound adjective ? 

49. What is a numeral adjective ? 

50. Describe the classes of numeral adjectives. 

51. What is a pronominal adjective ? 

52. Describe the classes of pronominal adjectives. 

53. What is a proper adjective ? 

54. Define comparison. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 177 

55. Describe the degrees of comparison. 

56. How are adjectives compared ? 

57. Where either of the two methods may be used, 
what determines which shall have the preference ? 

58. By using less and least, how many varieties of 
quality can be expressed ? 

59. Mention some adjectives that have different words 
for expressing the different degrees of comparison. 

60. What adjectives cannot be compared ? 

61. Are any of the above adjectives ever used in the 
comparative or superlative form ? 

62. What is an article ? 

63. To what part of speech are articles closely related? 

64. How do the words an and the differ from adjectives ? 

65. Describe the use of the articles. 

66. Define pronoun. 

67. From what is the term pronoun derived ? 

68. Why are pronouns used ? 

69. What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? 

70. How may pronouns be classified ? 

71. What is a personal pronoun ? 

72. Name the simple personal pronouns. 

73. Name the compound personal pronouns. 

74. Define relative pronoun. Name the relative pro- 
nouns. 

75. How are relative pronouns used ? 

76. How may the relative what be parsed ? 

77. Is the antecedent of what ever expressed ? 

78. What pronoun is employed instead, when the an- 
tecedent is supplied ? 

79. How are the compound relatives formed, and what 
are they? 

80. What are interrogative pronouns ? 

81. How are relative and interrogative pronouns de- 
clined ? 

13 



178 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

82. How are the interrogative pronouns used ? 

83. What may the antecedent of a pronoun be ? 

84. What modifications have pronouns ? 

85. What are adjective pronouns ? 

86. How are adjective pronouns classified ? 

87. What are the last three classes sometimes called? 

88. Name the possessive adjective pronouns. 

89. Is as ever used as a relative pronoun ? 

90. What is a verb ? 

91. How are verbs classified from their uses ? 

92. Define transitive verb. Intransitive verb. 

93. How are verbs classified with respect to form ? 

94. What is a regular verb? An irregular verb ? 

95. What is a redundant verb ? 

96. What is a defective verb ? 

97. What is an auxiliary verb ? 

98. What is an attributive verb ? 

99. What is an impersonal verb ? 

100. What is a complete verb ? 

101. In a transitive verb, what three things are always 
implied ? 

103. How may it be determined whether a verb is 
transitive or intransitive ? 

103. How may an intransitive verb be made trans- 
itive ? 

104. May a verb be used both transitively and intran- 
sitively ? Give example. 

105. What is a neuter verb ? 

106. How is a copulative verb used ? 

107. What are the properties of verbs ? 

108. Define voice. 

109. Define active voice. Passive voice. 

110. What advantages arise from having two voices ? 

111. What is mode ? 

112. How many modes, and what are they ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 179 

113. "Which of these modes are sometimes called the 
finite modes ? 

114. What are the infinite modes ? 

115. What is the indicative mode ? 

116. Define the use of the subjunctive mode. 

117. Define the use of the potential mode. 

118. What is the use of the imperative mode ? 

119. How does the infinitive mode express the mean- 
ing of the verb ? 

120. What is the sign of the infinitive mode ? When 
is this sign omitted ? 

121. How does the number of modes differ in various 
languages, and in the classifications made by grammarians ? 

122. What is a participle ? 

123. How many participles has a verb ? 

124. Define present participle. 

125. Define perfect participle. 

126. Define compound participle. 

127. What constructions may participles have ? 

128. What are tenses ? 

129. Name the tenses in English. 

130. Define present tense. 

131. Define present-perfect tense. 

132. Define pasb tense. 

133. Define past-perfect tense. 

134. Define future tense. 

135. Define future-perfect tense. 

136. What mode alone has the six tenses ? 

137. How many and what tenses has the subjunctive 
mode ? 

138. What tenses has the potential mode ? 

139. What tenses has the infinitive mode ? The im- 
perative ? 

140. What do person and number indicate, when ap- 
plied to verbs ? 



180 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

141. What modifications of number have verbs ? 

142. What modifications of person have verbs ? 

143. What are the principal parts of a verb ? Why so 
called ? 

144. What is meant by the conjugation of a verb ? 

145. How many forms of conjugation are there ? 

146. What is the synopsis of a verb ? 

147. What is a paradigm ? 

148. What is the root of a verb ? 

149. What is the theme of a verb ? 

150. Why do grammarians call the irregular verbs 
strong verbs ? 

151. From what language were the strong verbs de- 
rived ? 

152. What is the number of such verbs ? 

153. What use is made of the ancient form, or solemn 
style of the verb ? 

154. What is the use of the emphatic form of the verb ? 

155. Define the progressive form. 

1 56. How is the interrogative form usually formed ? 

157. Where may the progressive form be used ? 

158. Where may the passive form be used ? How is 
it formed ? 

159. Define adverb. 

160. May an adverb modify a phrase or a sentence ? 

161. How are adverbs classified ? 

162. What are conjunctive adverbs ? 

163. To what are they equivalent ? 

164. How is the adverb there often used ? 

165. Name some words which may be used as either 
adverbs or adjectives. 

166. What modifications have adverbs ? 

167. What is a preposition ? 

168. What are the antecedent and subsequent terms 
of a preposition ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 181 

169. What is an adjunct ? 

170. Define conjunction. 

171. How are conjunctions classified ? 

172. Name the classes as to rank. As to signification. 

173. Define coordinate conjunctions, and give classes. 

174. Define subordinate conjunctions, and give classes. 

175. Define copulative conjunction, and give classes. 

176. Define disjunctive conjunction, and give classes. 

177. What is an interjection ? 

178. Why is the interjection so called ? 

179. Define parsing. 

180. What is meant by the agreement of words ? 

181. What is meant by the government of words ? 

182. What is meant by the relation of words ? The 
arrangement of words ? 

183. Of what does syntax treat ? 

184. Define sentence. 

185. Define proposition. 

186. What is the subject of a sentence? The predi- 
cate ? 

187. How may sentences be classified according to 
use ? 

188. What is a declarative sentence ? 

189. What is an interrogative sentence ? 

190. What is an imperative sentence ? 

191. What is an exclamatory sentence ? 

192. How may sentences be classified with regard to 
form ? 

193. What is a simple sentence ? 

194. What is a complex sentence ? 

195. What is a compound sentence ? 

196. Define phrase. 

197. What is the logical subject of a sentence ? 

198. What is the logical predicate of a sentence ? 

199. What is a clause ? 



182 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

200. Define analysis. Define elements. 

201. Define synthesis. 

202. "What is meant by ellipsis ? 

203. When is one word in apposition with another ? 

204. In what case is a noun or a pronoun in apposi- 
tion ? 

205. In the expression of thought, what is the prov- 
ince of grammar ? Of logic ? Of rhetoric ? 

206. AVhat does logic demand of language ? 

207. What does grammar demand of language ? 

208. What does rhetoric demand of language ? 

209. In regard to language, what is meant by good 
usage 9 

210. What are the characteristics of good usage ? 

211. What is prosody ? 

212. What is verse ? 

213. What are the kinds of verse ? 

214. What is rhyme ? 

215. What is blank verse ? 

216. What is meant by quantity ? 

217. What is a figure in grammar ? 

218. What are poetical feet ? 

219. What is meter? 

220. Define versification. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 183 



ANSWERS. 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Language is the medium by which we communi- 
cate our thoughts. — Greene's Analysis of the English 
Language, p. 11. 

Language proper consists of spoken and written words 
used to communicate ideas and thoughts. — Higher Les- 
sons in English. Reed and Kellogg, p. 16. 

2. As to the origin of language, three opinions have 
been maintained : 1. That language was the pure gift 
of God, conveyed in vocal sounds to the listening ear, as 
from a teacher to pupil. 2. That it was the invention 
of man, contrived for the purpose of communication. 
3. That it was neither the pure gift of God, nor an in- 
vention of man, but the spontaneous result of his or- 
ganization, just as reason is. — Fowler's English Gram- 
mar, p. 34. 

3. 1. Difference of occupation. The vocabulary of a 
shepherd must differ from that of a mariner. 2. Dif- 
ference of improvement in sciences and the arts of life. 
The man of science must increase the number of his 
terms as he becomes acquainted with new facts. 3. Dif- 
ference of climate, both by bringing different classes of 
objects before the mind, and by producing different ef- 
fects in the organs of speech. — Id., p. 46. 

4. English language is the language spoken by the 
people of England. It is spoken also by the people of 
the United States, and wherever else English people are 
found. — RauVs Practical English Gram., p. 11. 

5. Grammar is the science which treats of the general 



184 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

principles of language. — Greene's English Grammar, 
p. 13. 

Grammar is both a science and an art. As a science, 
it investigates the principles of language in general ; as 
an art, it teaches the right method of applying these 
principles to a particular language, so as thereby to ex- 
press our thoughts in a correct and proper manner, ac- 
cording to established usage. — Bullions^ Analytical and 
Practical English Gram. , p. 3. 

6. English grammar treats of the principles and 
usages of the English language ; it teaches us to speak 
and write it correctly. — Greene's English Gram., p. 13. 

7. Grammar is divided into four parts — Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. — Id., p. 13. 

8. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the let- 
ters which represent them, and the combination of let- 
ters into syllables and words. — Id., p. 13. 

9. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, 
and various modifications of words. — Id., p. 13. 

10. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. — 
Id., p. 13. 

11. Prosody treats of the laws of versification. — Id., 
p. 13. 

13. Words are arranged in classes, according to the 
functions they perform, or the work they do, in sen- 
tences. There are eight of these classes of words, and 
they are called The Parts of Speech. — Swinton's Pro- 
gressive English Gram., p. 5. 

13. The parts of speech are : The noun, pronoun, ad- 
jective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and in- 
terjection. — Id., p. 5. 

14. Inflection is the change of form which words un- 
dergo in order to express different relations ; as the 
change of termination of a verb to indicate its relation 
to persons ; as speak, speakest ; or the change of termi- 



ENGLISH QRAiniAR. 185 

nation of a noun in declension ; as, John, Jolm^s ; or it 
is the change of termination of an adjectiye ; as, wise, 
wiser, wisest. — Foivler's Grammar, pp. 237, 238. 

15. A noun is the name of anything ; as, box, good- 
ness, James, iami\y.—Eau¥s Practical English Gram., 
p. 27. 

16. To the class of nouns belong everything, whether 
word, letter, mark, or character, of which we can think, 
speak, or write, regarded merely as an object of 
thought, even when, as sometimes happens, we do not 
give it a name. Thus when we say " Good" is an ad- 
jective, a is a, vowel, 5 is a consonant, ^ is a capital, 4 
is an even number, |^ is a fraction, ? is a mark of inter- 
rogation, + is the sign of addition, — of subtraction, 
= of equality— (rOOfZ, a, h, 4, |, ?, +, — , =, are all to 
be regarded as nouns. — Bullions' Analytical and Prac- 
tical English Gram., p. 25. 

17. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common. A 
proper noun is the name applied to an individual only ; 
as, John, London, America, the Ohio. A common 
noun is a name applied to all things of the same sort ; 
as, man, chair, table, book. — Id. pp. 23, 24. 

18. Some common nouns are classed as either collec- 
tive, abstract, or verbal. — BauVs Prac. English Gram., 
p. 29. 

19. A collective noun is a noun denoting, in the 
singular form, more than one object of the same kind. 
Example, Assembly, swarm, floch, crowd, pair, family ; 
"a hundred head.''' An abstract noun denotes a qual- 
ity, an action, or mode of being ; as. Goodness, poioer, 
wisdom, color, fragrance, motion, existence. — KerVs 
Comprehensive English Gram. pp. 124, 125. 

20. A verbal noun is a participle used as a noun. Ex- 
ample : — He was convicted of stealing. — Greene's En- 
glish Gram., p. 41. 



186 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

21. Personification is that figure of speech by which 
■we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as. 
The sea saw it and fled. — Bullions' Gram., p. 279. 

22. Common nouns become proper when personified, 
and also when used as proper names ; as. Hail, Liberty I 
The Park— Id., p. 24. 

23. The accidents of nouns are person, gender, num- 
ber, and case. — Id., p. 26. 

24. Person is that property of a noun or a pronoun 
which shows the relation of the speaker to the object 
spoken of. The object spoken of may be — (1) the 
speaker himself; (2) the person spolceti to ; (3) a party 
neither speaking nor spoken to, but merely spoken of. 
Hence, — There are three persons : the first, the second, 
and the third. — Greeners English Gram., p. 42. 

25. The sexes are distinguished in three ways : I. By 
the use of different names : as, bachelor, maid, boy, girl. 
II. By the use of different terminations : as, ahbott, 
abbess. III. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : 
as, coch-sparrow, hen-sparrotv, man-servant, maid-ser- 
vant. — Broion^s English Gram., pp. 51, 52. 

26. Genders, in Grammar, are modifications that dis- 
tinguish in regard to sex. — Id., p. 51. 

27. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the 
feminine, the common, and the neuter. — RauVs Practi- 
cal English Gram., p. 37. 

28. Nouns, generally, are made plural by adding s to 
the singular ; as, book, boohs. Nouns whose last sound 
will not unite with the sound of 5 usually form their 
plurals by adding es to the singular ; as, fox, foxes ; 
church, churches. — Id., p. 30. 

29. Figures, letters, and signs form their plurals by 
the addition of the apostrophe (') and the letter s ; as, 
a, a's ; 9, 9's ; +, +'5 ; *, *'s.—Id. p. 31. 

30. Most compound words are pluralized, by making 



ENGLISH QRA31MAR. 187 

plural only that part of the word which is described by 
the rest ; as, mouse-trap, mouse-traps ; brother-in-law, 
brothers-in-law. When the compound word is a foreign 
term or other phrase, of which the descriptive part is 
not very obvious, the whole word is generally pluralized 
like a simple one ; as, piano-forte, piano-fortes ; tete-a- 
tete, tete-a-tetes. A few compound words have both 
parts made plural ; as, man-servant, men-servants. — 
KerVs English Gram., pp. 140, 141. 

31. A term composed of a proper name preceded by 
a title, is pluralized by annexing the plural termination 
to either the name or the title, but not to both. Ex. 
*^the Misses Davidson; the Miss Browns; the Drs. 
Edmondson ; the Messrs. Harper." But when the title 
is Mrs., or is preceded by a numeral, the latter is always 
made plural ; as, ''the Mrs. Welbys." "The two Mr. 
Barlows." And the title is always pluralized, when it 
refers to two or more difEerent or separate persons ; as, 
''Drs. Burns, Edwards, and Johnson ; " " Misses Mary 
and Julia Harrison." — Id., p. 141. 

32. No certain rule can be given for foiming such 
plurals, but the following may be of some assistance : — 
The termination us, is changed to i ; um or on, to a ; 
is, to es or ides ; a, to ae or ata ; and x or ex, to ces or 
ices. — Id., p. 142, 

33. Wisdom, gold, temperance, flour ; ashes, bill- 
iards, cattle, scissors, tongs, scales, wages ; deer, sheep, 
apparatus, species, riches. — Eaub's Practical English 
Gram., p. 35. 

34. Case is that property of nouns which denotes 
their relation to other words. There are three cases : — 
the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. — Id., 
p. 40. 

35. A noun is in the nominative case — 1. When it is 
the subject of a finite verb. 2. When it is used in pred- 



188 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

icate. 3. When it is used absolutely, or independent of 
any other word. — Bullions' Gram., p. 39. 

36. The possessive case connects with the name of an 
object, the idea of origin, possession, or fitness ; as, the 
sun's rays ; John's book ; a loy's cap. It is always 
found with another substantive, whose meaning it 
limits. — Id., p. 39. 

37. The objective case is used — 1. To denote the ob- 
ject of a transitive verb in the active voice. 2. To de- 
note the object of a relation expressed by preposition. 
3. To denote time, value, weight or measure without a 
governing word. — Id., p. 40. 

38. The possessive singular of nouns is regularly 
found by adding an apostrophe (') and the letter s to 
the nominative ; as man's, David's. When the plural 
ends in s, the apostrophe only is added ; as ioys' ladies'. 
But the (') and s are added when the plural ends in any 
other letter than s; as, men's, women's brethren's. — 
Greene's Eng. Gram., p. 53. 

39. When the singular ends in s, or in a letter or 
combination of letters having the sound of s, and the 
addition of a sylhible would be harsli, the poets and some 
prose writers add the (') only. Example : — Peleus' son, 
goodness' sake, conscience' sake. — Id., p. 54. 

40. Some dilTercnce of opinion prevails among writers 
respecting the form of the possessive in other cases when 
the singular ends in s, some adding the (') only, and 
some the (') and s. Thus, we have Adams' Express, or 
Adams's Express. The weight of authority is in favor 
of the additional s, whenever the laws of euphony will 
admit, especially if a syllable is added in pronouncing 
the word ; as, Bates's Sermons, Barnes's Notes. — Id., p. 
54. 

41. An adjective is a word which cannot by itself 
form the subject of a proposition, but which with the 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 189 

verb to he, can form the predicate of a proposition ; as, 
**God is good;" "Man is mortal." Or, an adjective 
is a word which qualifies or limits a noun ; as, a wise 
man. — Fowler's English Oram., p. 263. 

An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the 
meaning of a substantive. — KerVs English Oram., p. 181. 

42. Adjectives may be divided into two chief classes ; 
descriptive and definitive. — Id., p. 181. 

43. Adjectives may be divided also into several smaller 
classes : namely, common ; participial ; compound ; nu- 
meral, comprising cardinal, ordinal, and multiplicative ; 
and pronominal, comprising, distributive, demonstra- 
tive, and indefinite. — Id., p. 182. 

44. A descriptive adjective describes or qualifies. 
Example : — ' ' The green forest was bathed in golden 
ligbt."— M,j9. 181. 

45. A definitive adjective merely limits or modifies. 
Example : — ** There are many wealthy farmers in this 
country."— M, p. 182. 

46. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet or 
adjective denoting quality or situation ; as, good, had, 
peaceful, warlike — eastern, western, outer, inner. — Bul- 
lions' Oram., p. 66. 

47. A participial adjective is one that has the form of 
a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of 
time; as, ''An amusing story." — Id., p. 56. 

48. A compound adjective is one that consists of two 
or more words joined together ; as, nut-hrown, laugh- 
ter-loving. — Id., p. 56. 

49. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a defi- 
nite number ; as, One, two, three, four, etc. — Id., p. 56. 

50. The cardinal numerals tell how many ; as, one, 
two ; the ordinal, which one ; os,, first, second ; and the 
multiplicatives, how many fold ; as, single, douhle, two- 
fold. — KerVs English Oram., p, 182. 



190 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

51. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which 
may either accompany its noun or represent it under- 
stood : "All join to guard what each desires to gain." — 
Brown's English Gram., p. 56. 

52. Distributives are those which point out objects 
singly. The distributives are : each, every, either, neither. 
Demonstratives are those which point out objects defin- 
itely. The demonstratives are : this, that, these, those, 
former, latter. Indefinites are those which point out 
objects indefinitely. The indefinites are : some, one, 
any, all, such, none, other, another. — RauVs Practical 
Gram., pp. 48, 49, 

53. A proper adjective is an adjective derived from a 
proper noun ; as, American, Wehsterian. — Harvey's 
English Gram., p. 38. 

54. Comparison is a modification of the adjective (or 
the adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality 
in the things compared. — Higher Lessons in English. 
Reed and Kellogg, p. 221. 

55. There are three degrees of comparison : the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative. The positive 
degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its 
simple form ; as, hard, soft, good. The comparative de- 
gree is that which exceeds the positive ; as, harder, 
softer, letter. The superlative degree is that which is 
not exceeded ; as, hardest, softest, lest. — Brown's Gram. , 
p. 56. 

56. The comparative of monosyllables is regularly 
formed by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding 
st or est to the positive. Example : — Wise, iviser, wisest ; 
lold, lolder, loldest. The comparative of most adjectives 
of more than one syllable (sometimes of one only), is 
formed by prefixing more or less, and the superlative by 
prefixing most or least to the positive. Example : — Indus- 
trious, more industrious, most industrious; leautiful, 



ENGLISH GRAM3IAR. 191 

less leautiful, least 'beautiful. — Greenes English Gram., 
p. 65. 

57. Of the two forms of comparison, that which is 
more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear, 
is to be preferred. — Higher Lessons in English. Reed 
and Kellogg, p. 223. 

58. We thus have the means of denoting at least five 
varieties of quality ; as, Least happy, less happy, happy, 
more happy, most happy. — Fowler's English Gram. , p. 
267. 

59. The following adjectives have different words for 
expressing the different degrees of comparison : 



Positive. Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, Better, 


Best. 


Bad, evil, or ill. Worse, 


Worst. 


Much or many, More, 


Most. 


Little, Less, Lesser, 


Least. 


— Fowler's English 


Gram., p. 267. 



60. Adjectives whose qualities are invariable, not sus- 
ceptible of increase or diminution, cannot be compared. 
Among these are : 1. All words expressive of figure ; as, 
circular, square. 2. Certain definitive adjectives ; as, 
one, two, several. 3. Certain words implying matter, 
time, place, person ; as, wooden, daily, British, Mosaic. 
4. Words denoting the highest or lowest degree of a 
quality ; as. Almighty, certain, chief, continual, perfect, 
etc.— Id., p. 270. 

61. Some of these adjectives are, however, frequently 
found in the comparative or superlative form : " But 
first and chief est ivith thee hring.'^ 

Thus, too, we find '' more perfect" and 'Unost per- 
fect," "fuller" and ''fullest," although it is evident 
that nothing can be more perfect than perfection, or 



192 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

more full than fullness. These forms of expression, 
though not logically correct, are rhetorically so. " In 
such instances the adjective in its positive state is not 
employed so as to denote absolutely the highest degree 
of the quality, but only an approximation to that degree. 
Thus, when we say one thing is fuller than another, we 
must mean that the one thing approaches nearer to 
fullness or perfection than another, presupposing that 
neither of these things is absolutely full." — Grant's 
Grammar, p. 54 ; Id., pp. 270, 271. 

62. An article is a word put before a noun to indicate 
the manner in which it is used. — Bullions' Gram., p. 45. 

63. It is a question whether the words an and the 
should be regarded as a distinct part of speech called the 
article, or should be classed with adjectives. An is very 
closely related in origin and power to the word one, a 
numeral adjective. The, both in its original and its 
present power, is closely related to the word that, a pro- 
nominal adjective. It is convenient to class them as a 
distinct part of speech. — Fowler's Gram., p. 275. 

64. They cannot, either of them, like 07ie and that, 
form the predicate of a proposition. Nor can either of 
them stand by itself as the subject of a proposition. The 
can enter into a proposition only as the sign of definite- 
ness; as, the man is mortal. An or a can enter into a 
proposition only as a sign of indefiniteness ; as, a man is 
tnortal. The article can be only a secondary part of 
speech. — Id., p. 275. 

65. An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a 
consonant sound ; as, an apple ; a pin ; an hour ; a 
union ; an honor. 

A or an is used before nouns in the singular ; the, be- 
fore nouns in the singular or plural. — Greene's English 
Gram., fp. 59, 60. 

66. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 193 

noun. Example: — The farmer ploughs Ms field; he reaps 
his wheat, and gathers it into his barn. — Id., p. 69. 

67. The term pronoun is derived from the Latin word 
pronomen, which signifies/or a woww. — Foivler^s English 

Gram., p. 278. 

68. To avoid tiresome and disagreeable repetition of 
nouns, pronouns are used to represent persons or things 
already mentioned, inquired after, or easily recognized 
by them. — KerVs English Gram. p. 126. 

69. The antecedent is the noun or substantive expres- 
sion for which the pronoun stands. — 6^reewe's Gram., 
p. 70. 

70. Pronouns may be divided into four classes : per- 
sonal, relative, interrogative and adjective. — Bullions' 
Practical and Analytical Gram. p. 5S. 

71. A personal pronoun is a pronoun whose form de- 
termines its person and number, — Clark's English 
Gram., p. 93. 

72. The simple personal pronouns are five, namely : 
/, of the first person ; thou, of the second person ; he, 
she, and it, of the third person. — Brown's English 
Gram., pp. Gl, 62. 

73. The compound personal pronouns are also five, 
namely : Myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the sec- 
ond person ; himself, herself, itself, of the third person. 
—Id. p. 62. 

74. A relative pronoun is a pronoun which stands 
for some preceding word or phrase called the antecedent, 
and performs the office of conjunction in connecting 
sentences. The relative pronouns are loho, ruhich, that, 
and ivhat. — Foivler''s English Gram., p. 279. 

75. Who is applied to persons; as, ''This is the 
orator who will speak to-morrow." It is figuratively 
applied to tilings. Which was formerly applied to 
persons as well as things ; as, *' Our Father which 



194 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

art in heaven." It is now applied only to animals 
and things without life. Tliat is used for who and 
ivhicli, and is applied to both persons and things. What, 
in its derivation the neuter of who, is, in its use, a 
compound relative, including the antecedent and the 
relative, and is equivalent to that which or those which', 
as, '' This is what I wanted ; " that is, the thing 
which I wanted. — Id., pp. 294, 295. 

76. What, when a relative, can be changed into that 
which, or the tiling which; as, ** Tell me what [that 
which] you know." That, or the thing, should be 
parsed as the antecedent part of what, and tvhich as the 
relative. — Harveifs English Gram., p. 58. 

77. What is used only when the antecedent is omitted. 
— Bingham's English Gram., p. 46. 

78. If the antecedent is supplied, which must always 
be used. — Id., p. 47. 

79. The compound relatives are formed by annexing 
ever and soever to who, lohich and what. They are who- 
ever, ivhosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and 
whatsoever. — RauVs English Gram., p. 61. 

80. Interrogative pronouns are those pronouns which 
are used in asking questions. The interrogatives are 
who, which, and lohat. — Id., p. 62. 

81. The relative and interrogative pronouns are thus 
declined : 

Singular and plural. Singular and plural. 
Nom. who, which, 

Pos. whose, whose, 

Obj. whom. which. 

That and what have no variation. Wlioever and loho- 
soever are declined like who. — Greene's English Gram., 
p. 79. 

82. Who, used interrogatively, is applied to persons ; 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 195 

which and what to both persons and things. A relatiye 
refers to a subject that is antecedent ; an interrogative to 
one that is subsequent. Who inquires for the name ; 
which, for the individual ; what, for the character or 
occupation. Who is applied to persons indefinitely, 
but which is applied to persons definitely. — Fowler's 
English Gram., p. 297. 

83. The antecedent may be a noun, a different pro- 
noun, a phrase, or a clause. — Harvey's English Gram., 
p. 50. 

84. Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns, 
namely: persons, numbers, genders, and cases. — Brown's 
English Gram., p. 63. 

85. Adjective pronouns are words used, sometimes 
like adjectives, to qualify a noun, and sometimes like 
pronouns, to stand instead of nouns. — Bullions' Gram., 
p. 74. 

86. Adjective pronouns are divided into four classes : 
possessive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. — 
Id. , 'p. 74. 

87. They are classed by some grammarians as adjec- 
tives, and called pronominal adjectives ; and by others 
pronouns, and called adjective pronouns. — Id., p. 74. 

88. The possessive pronouns are such as denote pos- 
session. They are my, thy, his, her, its, — our, your, 
their. — Id., p. 75. 

89. As, when it follows such, many, or sa^ne, is by 
some grammarians parsed as a relative, as in the sentence, 
*'They were such as he had." Properly there is an el- 
lipsis in such expressions, the relative being omitted ; as, 
" They were such as (were those which) he had. " — Raub's 
English Gram., pp. 60, 61. 

90. A verb is a word used to express the act, being, or 
state of its subject. — Bulliotis' Gram., p. 79. 

91. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to 



196 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

their uses : I. Transitive. II. Intransitive. Many verbs 
are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive. — 
Fowler^s English Gram., p. 305. 

93. A transitive verb receives or requires an object to 
complete its meaning. An intransitive verb neither re- 
ceives nor requires an object to complete its meaning. — 
Greenes English Gram., p. 86. 

93. Verbs'^are divided, with respect to their form, into 
four classes ; regular, irregular, redundant, and defective. 
— Brown's English Gram., p. 67. 

94. A regular verb is one whose past tense in the in- 
dicative and whose perfect participle are formed by an- 
nexing -ed to the present tense ; as, pres., live ; past, 
lived ; perfect participle, lived. 

An irregular verb is one whose past tense in the in- 
dicative, or whose perfect participle, or both, are not 
formed by annexing -eel to the present tense ; as, pres, 
sing; past, sang; perfect participle, sung, — RauVs En- 
glish Gram., pp. 78, 79. 

Note. — Verbs ending in e mute, drop e before ed. — 
Bullions^ Gram., p. 83. 

95. A redundant verb is a verb that has more than 
one form for some of its modes and tenses. — Clarh's 
Normal Gram., p. 114. 

96. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, 
and is used in but few of the modes and tenses ; as, he- 
ware, ought, quoth. — Brown's English Gram., p. 67. 

97. An auxiliary verb is one which is used in forming 
the modes and tenses of other verbs. The auxiliary verbs 
are do, be, have, will, shall, mag, can, must, and some- 
times need. — RauVs English Gram., p. 84. 

98. An attributive verb asserts and connects an attri- 
bute with its subject ; as, ''Snow is white." "Man is 
mortal." — Bullions'' Gram., p. 81. 

99. An impersonal verb is one by which an action or 



EN&LISE GRAMMAR. 197 

a state is asserted independently of any particular sub- 
ject. Example: — It rains. 

100. A complete verb is a verb that has an appropriate 
form for all the modes and tenses. — ClarJc's Normal 
Gram., p. 114. 

101. In the use of transitive verbs, three things are 
always implied — the actor, the act, and the object acted 
upon : in the use of the intransitive verbs there are only 
two — the subject and the being, state or act, ascribed to 
it. — Bullions' Gram. , p. 81. 

102. To determine whether a verb is transitive or in- 
transitive, we have only to use this test : Ask with it the 
question what ? or whom ? and if in its signification as 
used in the example in question, it has, as answer, a noun 
or a pronoun, meaning a different thing from the sub- 
ject, or if one is obviously required to complete the 
meaning intended, it is transitive ; otherwise it is in- 
transitive. — Green's English Gram., pp. 87, 88. 

103. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered trans- 
itive — 1. By the the addition of another word ; as, in- 
tratisitive, "I laugh;" transitive, "I laugh at." 2. 
When followed by a noun of the same, or similar signifi- 
cation, as an object ; as, intransitive, ^'1 run"; transi- 
tive "I rion a race." — Bullions' Gram., p. 82. 

104. Some verbs may be used both transitively and in- 
transitively ; as, "He reads well," "He reads a book." — 
Hart's English Grammar and Analysis, p. 65. 

105. A neuter verb is a verb that ex^sresses neither 
action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being ; 
a.s, "Thou art." — "He sleeps." — Brown's English 
Gram., p. 74. 

106. A copulative verb is used to join a predicate 
to a subject, and to make an assertion ; as, " Sugar is 
sweet;" "He seems honest." — Harvey's English Gram., 
p. 74. 



198 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

107. The properties of verbs are, voice, mode, tense, 
person, and number. — Id., p. 76. 

108. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. There 
are two voices — the active and the passive. — Greene's 
English Gram., p. 91. 

109. The active voice is that form of the verb which 
denotes that the subject or nominative acts ; as, "John 
strikes the table." The passive voice is that form of the 
verb which denotes that the subject or nominative is 
acted upon; as, "The table is struck by John." — 
Harfs Unglish Grammar and Analysis, p. 56. 

110. The following advantages arise from having 
these two forms of expression : 1. We can by the form 
alone, direct attention, chiefly, either to the actor, or to 
that which is acted upon. 2. By means of the passive 
voice, we are able to state a fact, when we either do not 
know, or for some reason, may not wish to state, by 
whom the act was done. 3. By this means, also, we 
have a variety, and of course, a choice of expression, 
and may, at pleasure, use that which to us appears the 
most perspicuous, convenient or elegant. — Bullions' 
English Gram., p. 91. 

111. Mode is the manner in which the action, the be- 
ing, or the state is asserted. — Greene's English Gram., 
p. 94 

112. There are five modes : the indicative, subjunc- 
tive, potential, imperative, and infinitive. — Harvey's 
English Gram., p. 83. 

113. the finite modes are the indicative, potential, 
subjunctive, and imperative.— ^oZJroo^''s Complete En- 
glish Gram. , p. 64. 

114. The infinite modes are those which have no lim- 
itation of person and number. They are ordinarily 
called infinitives and participles. — Id., p. 69. 



ENOLISn GRAMMAR. 199 

115. The indicative mode is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed directly and without 
limitation ; as, lie writes. — llarfs English Grammar 
and Analysis, p. ^1. 

116. The subjunctive mode represents the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, not as actual, but as conditional, 
desirable, or contingent ; as, if he study, lie will im- 
prove. — Bullions'' English Gram., p. 94. 

117. The potential mode declares, not the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, but only its possibility, or the 
liberty, power, will, or obligation, of the subject with 
respect to it ; as, ** The wind may blow." — Id., p. 93. 

118. The imperative mode commands, exhorts, en- 
treats, or permits. — Id., p. 95. 

119. The infinitive mode expresses the meaning of the 
verb in a general manner, without any distinction of 
person or number ; as, to love. — Id., p. 95. 

120. To is called the sign of the infinitive mode. After 
the active voice of the verbs Md, make, need, let, feel, 
and dare ; after let in the passive, and after some other 
words, to is omitted. — Lee and lladley' s English Gram., 
p. 212. 

121. Not only languages differ as to the number of 
modes which, by general consent, are attributed to them, 
but grammarians differ as to the number of modes which 
should be attributed to the same language. As modes 
represent the conceptions and affections of the mind, 
they might be as varied and extended as those affections. 
These might be the indicative, the subjunctive, the po- 
tential, the oblative, the imperative, infinitive, vocative, 
precative, interrogative, causal, reflective, etc. Modes 
represent the different feelings of the mind, to which 
feelings the varied inflections of the verb are adapted. 
It is said that the Arabic has thirteen modes, the Rus- 
sian seven, the Sanscrit six, the Anglo-Saxon four, the 



200 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

same nnmbor which some of the most respectable gram- 
marians have assigned to the English as received by in- 
heritance from the mother tongue. — Fowler's English 
Gram., p. 315. 

132. A participle is that form of a verb which par- 
takes of the nature both of a verb and an adjective. — 
Harfs English Grammar and Analysis, p. 62. 

123. There are three participles : the present, the 
perfect, and the com^ounOi.— Harvey's English Gram., 
p. 70. 

There are, properly, two participles, the present and 
the perfect. — Greene's English Gram., p. 97. 

124. The present participle denotes that which is now 
in progress ; as, going, leing, worTcing, etc. The present 
participles all end ining. — Hart's Grammar and Analy- 
sis, p. 62. 

125. The past or perfect participle denotes that which 
is complete or finished; as, written, stolen. — Id., p. 63, 

126. The compound participle consists of heing, 
or having, or having teen, and some present or perfect- 
participle placed after it. — Kerl's English Gram., p. 215. 

127. The participle may have the construction of a 
noun, adjective, or adverb, in addition to its verbal 
force, that of assuming action, being or state of being. — 
Holbrookes Gram., p. 73. 

128. Tenses are certain forms of the verb which serve 
to point out the distinctions of time. — Bullions En- 
glish Gram., p. 96. 

129. The tenses in English are six — the present, the 
present-perfect, the past, the past-perfect, the future, 
and ih.Q future-perfect. — Id., p. 97. 

130. The present tense expresses what is going on at 
the present time ; as, " I love." — Id., p. 97. 

131. The present-perfect tense represents an action or 
event as completed at the present time, or in a period 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 201 

of which the present forms a part ; as, " I liave sold my 
horse" — "John has been busy this week." — Id., p. 98. 

132. The past tense expresses what took place in past 
time ; as, " In the beginning God created the heavens." 
Id., p. 99. 

133. The past-perfect tense represents an action or 
event as completed at or before a certain past time ; as, 
"1 had walked six miles that day." — Id., pp. 99, 100. 

134. The future tense expresses what will take place 
in future time; as, ''I will see you again, and your 
hearts shall rejoice.''^ — Id., p. 100. 

135. The future -perfect tense intimates that an action 
or an event will be completed at or before a certain time 
yet future ; as, "He will have finished his letter before 
you are ready. " — Id. , p. 100. 

136. The indicative mode alone has all the tenses, and 
in it alone are the distinctions of time strictly indicated. 
—Id., p. 97. 

137. The subjunctive mode in its proper form, has 
only the present tense. The verb "^o Je" has the pre- 
sent and the past. — Id., p. 101. 

The subjunctive mode has two tenses, the present and 
the past. — RauVs Practical English Gram., p. 75. 

The subjunctive mode has three tenses : the pres- 
ent, past, and past-perfect. — Harvey's English Gram., 
p. 91. 

The subjunctive mode has six tenses, — the same as 
the indicative. — Greene's English Gram., p. 107. 

138. The potential mode has four tenses, — the present, 
the present-perfect, the past, and the past-perfect. — 
Id., p. 107. 

139. The infinitive mode has two tenses, — the present 
and the perfect. The imperative mode has only one 
tense, — the present. — Id., p. 107. 

140. Number and person, as applied to verbs, indicate 



202 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

only the form to be used with each number and person 
of tlie subject. — Bullions'' English Gram., p. 107. 

141. Every tense of the verb has two numbers, the 
singular and plural, corresponding to the singular and 
plural of nouns and pronouns. The singular asserts of 
one ; the plural of more than one. — Id., p. 107. 

142. In each number, the verb has three persons, 
called the first, second, and third. The first asserts of 
the person speaking, the second of the person spoken to, 
and the third of the person or thing spoken of. — Id., 
p. 107. 

143. The principal parts of a verb are : the present 
indicative, the past indicative, and the perfect partici- 
ple. — Harvey's English Gram., p. 95. 

These are called principal parts, because from them 
all other forms of the verb are made. — Holbrook's Com- 
plete English Gram., p. 74. 

144. The conjugation of a verb is the correct ex- 
pression, in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices, 
persons, and numbers. — Id., p. 95. 

145. There are four forms of conjugation : the regu- 
lar, the emphatic, the progressive, and the interroga- 
tive. — Id. , p. 95. 

146. The synopsis of a verb is its variation in form, 
through the different modes and tenses, in a single 
number and person. — Id., p. 95. 

147. A word given as a model by which to inflect other 
words is called a paradigm. Bolt wood's Eiiglish Gram., 
p. 98. 

148. The present infinitive active without the sign to, 
is the root of the verb. — Quackenhos' English Gram., p. 
130. 

149. The theme of the verb is that form which admits 
the preposition to before it; as, to have, to see. This 
form is called the infinitive, or unlimited form, and 



ENGLISH 0RAM3IAR. 203 

is generally a substantive. — BoUwood's English Gram., 
p. 98. _ . 

150. Modern grammarians style this class of verbs 
strong verbs, as they make their parts by a powerful 
internal change, and thus stand contrasted with the 
verbs in the -ed inflection, which are styled weak verbs. 
— Swinton's Progressive English Gram., p. 60. 

151. Strong verbs are all a heritage from the early 
Saxon. — Id., p. 60. 

152. Irregular verbs number less than 200, biit they 
belong to the very ground-work of modern English. — 
Id., 2}- 60, 

153. The ancient form, or solemn style, is used in the 
Bible, in religious worship, and sometimes in poetry 
and burlesque. — Harveg's English Gram., p. 82. 

154. The emphatic form is used to express a fact with 
emphasis or force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb 
the auxiliary do in the present tense, and did in the past ; 
as, '^ I do write" — "I did write." The other tenses, 
and also the progressive form and passive form are ren- 
dered emphatic by placing emphasis on the auxiliary ; 
as, "I have written" — "I am writing" — ''The letter 
is written." — Bullions^ English Gram., p. 110. 

155. The progressive form represents an action as be- 
gun, and in progress, but not completed. It is formed 
by annexing the present participle to the verb " to ie " 
through all its modes and tenses ; as, '* I am writing," 
etc. — Id.,p, 110. 

156. The interrogative form usually transposes the 
order of the auxiliary ; as, " Have I written ? " and in 
the present and past indicative uses do and did ; as, 
" Do I write ? Did I write ? "—Id., p. 110. 

157. The progressive form may be used in all the 
modes and tenses. — Harvey^ s English Gram., f. 93. 

158. The passive form is used in all the modes and 



204 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tenses. It is formed by prefixing the various modes and 
tenses of the verb to be to the present participle of the 
principal verb. — Id., p. 93. 

159. An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb, or to denote some circum- 
stance respecting it. — Bullions^ Gram. , p. 138. 

160. On the same principle that an adverb modifies 
another adverb, it sometimes also modifies an adjunct, a 
phrase, or a sentence. — Id., p. 138. 

161. Adverbs have been divided into various classes, 
according to their signification. The chief of these are 
the following : 

1. Manner ; as, justly, hravely. 

2. Place ; as, here, there, where — hither. 

3. Time ; as, now, then, when, soon, often. 

4. Direction ; as, uptvard, doivnivard. 

5. Affirmation ; as, yes, verily, certainly. 

6. Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise. 

7. Interrogation ; as, how ? why f when f 

8. Comparison ; as, more, most, less, as. 

9. Quantity ; as, much, some, little, enough. 

10. Order; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next. — Id., pp. 
138, 139. 

162. Conjunctive adverbs are those which express the 
adverbial relation of a dependent clause ; and connect 
it with the verb, the adjective, or the adverb which it 
modifies ; as, "I shall meet my friend when the boat ar- 
rives." — Greeners English Gram. , pp. 148, 149. 

163. They are equivalent to two phrases, the one con- 
taining a relative pronoun, the other its antecedent. 
Example. — The lilies grow tvhere the ground is moist, 
= The lilies grow m that place in which the ground is 
moist. — Id.,p. 149. 

164. The adverb there is often used as a mere exple- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 305 

tive, without apparently any signification of its own, as 
in this sentence, " There was a man sent from Grod, 
whose name was John.'- — Harfs English Gram., j)- 8G. 

165. Many words, such as no, well, better, more, most, 
lo7ig, worse, fast, late, and early, may be used as either 
adverbs or adjectives. — Raub's English Gram., p. 101. 

166. Adverbs have no modifications, except that a 
few are compared after the manner of adjectives. — 
Brown'' s English Gram., 2) • HI. 

167. A preposition is a word which shows the relation 
between the noun or pronoun following it, and some 
other word in the sentence. — Bullions' English Gram., 
p. 143. 

168- Of the words related, that before the preposition 
is called the antecedent term of the relation, and that 
which follows is called the subsequent term or regimen. 
—Id., p. 143. 

169. An adjunct is a preposition with its object, or 
with the words required after it to complete the sense. 
— KerVs English Gram., p. 249. 

170. A conjunction is a word which connects words, 
phrases, or sentences. — Bullions' Gram. p. 149. 

171. Conjunctions are classified on two bases ; first, as 
to rank ; second, as to signification. — Holbrooh's Eng- 
lish Gram., p. 96. 

172. As to rank, conjunctions are coordinate and 
subordinate. As to signification, conjunctions are cop- 
ulative and disjunctive. — Id., p. 96. 

173. Coordinate conjunctions are those which join 
elements of the same rank or name. They may be clas- 
sified as follows : 1. Copulative, denoting addition 
merely ; as, and, also, further, etc. 2. Adversative, 
denoting opposition of meaning ; as, hut, yet, still, only, 
etc. 3. Alternative, denoting that which may be 
chosen or omitted ; as, else, otherwise, or, nor, either. 



206 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

etc. 4. Illative, implying a consequence or inference 
following from what has been said ; as, hence, thence, 
there, therefore, for, iecause, so, consequently, etc. — 
Harvet/'s English Gram., jjp. 138, 129. 

174. Subordinate conjunctions are those which join 
elements of different ranks or names. They may be 
classified as follows : 1. Casual, denoting effect, condi- 
tion, reason, result, or purpose ; as, that, so that, if, un- 
less, except, as, because, since, etc. 2. Temporal, de- 
noting time ; as, ere, after, before, until, when, etc. 
3. Local, denoting rest in, or motion to or from a place ; 
as, where, there, tohence, thence, tvhither, etc. 4. Man- 
ner or degree, denoting likeness, equality, and excess or 
deficiency ; as, as, as if, how, although, than, so as, 
etc.— Id, p. 129. 

175. A copulative conjunction not only joins sentences 
together, but also unites their meanings. Of these 
there are two kinds : 1. Connective, which simply con- 
nect the meaning of two united [words or phrases] ; as, 
" The sun shines and the sky is clear." 2. Continua- 
tive, which combine the meaning of the united sen- 
tences ; as, " The sun shines because the sky is clear." — 
Bullions' Gram., p. 149. 

176. A disjunctive conjunction is one which, while it 
joins two sentences together, disconnects their meaning; 
these are two kinds : 1. Distributive, which simply dis- 
connect, or distribute the meaning of the united sen- 
tences [words or phrases] ; as, '^ You may go or you 
may stay." 2. Adversative, which contract the mean- 
ing of united sentences ; as, " It is day, but it is not 
night."— M, pp. 149, 150. 

177. An interjection is a word used in exclama- 
tions, to express an emotion of the mind ; as. Oh ! what 
a fall was there ! " — Id., p. 148. 

178. The interjection is so called, because it is, as it 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 207 

were, thrown in among the words of a sentence, without 
any grammatical connection with them. — Id., p. 148, 

179. Parsing consists, (1) in naming the part of speech; 
(2) in telling its properties ; (3) in pointing out its rela- 
tions to other words ; (4) in giving the rule for its con- 
struction. — Harvey's English Gram., p. 39. 

180. The agreement of words, is their similarity in 
person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. — 
Brown's English Gram., p. 127. 

181. The government of words, is that power which 
one word has over another, to cause it to assume some 
particular modification. — Id., p. 137. 

18'^. The relation of words, is their dependence, or 
connection according to sense. The arrangement of 
words, is their collocation, or relative position, in a sen- 
tence. — Id., p. 127. 

183. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, govern- 
ment, and arrangement of words in sentences. — Id., p. 
126. 

184. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as ex- 
presses a thought, and makes complete sense. — Bullions^ 
Gram., p. 162. 

185. A proposition is a single statement or affirma- 
tion. — Id., p. 162. 

186. The subject is that of which the affirmation is 
made. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the 
subject. — Id., p. 162. 

187. According to their use, sentences may be divided 
into four classes : Declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, and exclamatory. — RauVs Practical English 
Gram., p. 121. 

188. A declarative sentence is one used to affirm or 
deny. — Id,, p. 121. 

189. An interrogative sentence is one used to ask a 
question — Id., p. 121. 



208 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

190. An imperative sentence is one used to express a 
command or an entreaty. — Id., p. J31. 

191. An exclamatory sentence is one used in exclama- 
tion. — Id., p. 121. 

192. With regard to form, sentences may be divided 
into three classes : simple, complex, and compotmd. — 
Id., p. 122. 

193. A simple sentence is one which contains a single 
proposition ; as, Flowers are beautiful. — Id., p. 122. 

194. A complex sentence is one which contains a prin- 
cipal proposition modified by one or more subordinate 
propositions ; as, The sun was shining as we came to 
school. — Id., p. 122. 

195. A compound sentence is one which contains two 
or more principal propositions ; as. The sun shone, and 
the ice melted. — Id., p. 122. 

196. A phrase is two or more words rightly put to- 
gether, but not containing an affirmation or making 
complete sense ; as, ''In truth " — " In a y^ordi.''— Bull- 
ions' Gram., p. 165. 

197. The logical subject is the person or thing spoken 
of, together with all the words, phrases, or clauses, by 
which it is limited or defined — Id., p. 170. 

198. The logical predicate is the grammatical predi- 
cate, with all the words, phrases, or clauses, that mod- 
ify it.— M,^). 174. 

199. A sentence used in another sentence to limit it 
or any part of it, is called a clause. — Id., p. 162. 

200. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the 
elements of which it is composed. The component 
parts of a sentence are called elements. — RauVs Prac- 
tical English Gram., p. 125. 

201. Synthesis is the construction of a sentence from 
words. — Id., p. 125. 

202. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words 



ENGLISH GRAilMAR. 209 

necessary to complete the sense and construction of the 
sentence. — Id., p. 143. 

203. A word is said to be in apposition with another 
when it is used to explain the other, or when it is repeated 
for emphasis ; as, " Smith, the 'bookseller, lives in that 
house." — Harfs English Gram., and Analysis, p. 124. 

204. A noun or pronoun, put in apposition with an- 
other, agrees with it in case. — Id., p. 134. 

205. Grammar treats of the expression of thought. 
Logic treats of tliouglit as expressed. Ehetoric treats of 
the effective expression of both thought and feeling. — 
Greeners Analysis, p. 337. 

306. Logic demands that the thought shall be truly 
and fully expressed. — Id., p. 339. 

207. Grammar demands that the language itself shall 
conform to standard usage. — Id., p. 340. 

308. Ehetoric demands the effective expression of 
thought, feeling and volition. — Id., p. 340. 

309. Good usage is the standard by which all words 
must be tested. — Id., p. 350. 

310. According to Dr. Campbell, good usage has three 
characteristics — 1. It is reputable, in opposition to that 
of the ignorant and vulgar. 3. It is national, in oppo- 
sition to that which is technical and provincial. 3. It 
is present, in opposition to that which is obsolete. — Id., 
pp. 350, 351. 

211. Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of 
tlie quantity of syllables, of feet, and the modes in 
which they are combined in verse. — QuacTcoibos' En- 
glish Gram., p. 378. 

313. Verse is language so arranged in lines that sylla- 
bles of a certain length may occur at certain intervals. — 
Id., p. 378. 

313. There are two kinds of verse, rhyme and blank 
verse. — Id., p. 378. 



210 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

214. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there is a 
correspondence of sound in the last syllables of two or 
more lines. — Id., p. 278. 

215. Blank verse is metrical language without rhyme. 
—Id., p. 278. 

216. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time re- 
quired to pronounce it. — Bullions' Gram., 'p. 284. 

217. A jBgure, in grammar, is some deviation from 
the ordinary form, or construction, or application of 
words in a sentence, for the purpose of greater precision, 
variety, or elegance of expression. — Id., p. 277. 

218. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line 
is divided — each of which consists of two or more sylla- 
bles, combined according to accent. — Id., p. 285. 

219. Meter, or measure, is the arrangement of a cer- 
tain number of poetical feet in a verse or line. — Id., p. 
286. 

220. Versification is the art of arranging words into 
poetical lines or verses. — Id., p. 285. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 211 



QVE8TI0N8. 
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 

1. What is composition ? 

2. What is rhetoric ? 

3. To what sciences is rhetoric closely allied ? 

4. What advantages are derived from the study of 
rhetoric ? 

5. What are the divisions of rhetoric ? 

6. What is meant by style? 

7. What does style include ? 

8. Under what heads may the subject of style be dis- 
cussed ? 

9. What reason is there for treating of style before 
treating of invention ? 

10. Define punctuation. 

11. Name the principal characters used in punctu- 
ation. 

12. Give rules for the use of the period, 

13. Give rules for the use of the interrogation point. 

14. Give rules for the use of the exclamation point. 

15. Give rules for the use of the dash. 

16. When should marks of parenthesis be used ? 

17. What is the use of brackets ? 

18. Give rules for the use of the colon. 

19. Give rules for the use of the semicolon. 

20. Give general rule for the use of the comma. 

21. Give four special rules for the use of the comma, 
23. What is the use of the apostrophe ? 

23. What is the use of the hyphen ? 



2U THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

24. What is the use of the quotation marks ? 

25. Give rules for the use of capitals. 

26. What is meant by diction as a quality of style ? 

27. When is an author's diction pure ? 

28. How may propriety be violated ? 

29. What does precision require ? 

30. Ehetorically, how may sentences be classified ? 

31. Give a general rule to be observed in the construc- 
tion of sentences. 

32. Give five special rules for the rhetorical construc- 
tion of sentences. 

33. Define figures. 

34. How are figures classified ? 

35. What are figures of orthography ? 

36. What are figures of etymology ? 

37. What are figures of syntax ? 

38. Define figure, in rhetoric. 

39. What advantages are derived from the use of fig- 
ures ? 

40. Name the chief figures of rhetoric. 

41. What is personification ? 

42. Define metonymy. 

43. Define synecdoche. 

44. What is hyperbole ? 

45. What is irony ? 

46. What is the use of simile ? 

47. Define metaphor. 

48. What danger in using figures ? 

49. Under what heads may the special properties of 
style be treated ? 

50. What is meant by sublimity ? 

51. What is the principal source of the sublime ? 

52. Name some of the sources of moral sublimity. 

53. What are the requisites for sublimity in a literary 
composition ? 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 213 

54. Into what faults are those who aim at the sublime, 
liable to fall ? 

55. In what does the beautiful in literature consist ? 

56. Define wit. 

57. How may this agreeable sensation or surprise be 
excited ? 

58. What are some of the differences between wit and 
humor ? 

59. What is yersification ? 

60. What is a verse ? 

61. What is rhythm ? 

62. What is it that makes the poetical arrangement of 
words more pleasing than the prose arrangement ? 

63. What are measures, or feet ? 

64. Upon what does meter of a verse depend ? 

65. How are meters classified according to the charac- 
ter of the feet ? 

66. How are meters classified according to the number 
of feet ? 

67. What is scanning ? 

68. What is rhyme ? 

69. What is blank verse ? 

70. Define stanza. 

71. Define poetry. 

72. How does poetry differ from prose ? 

73. Name the principal varieties of poetry. 

74. What is an epic poem ? 

75. Name three great epic poems. 

76. Who is the greatest dramatist in English litera- 
ture ? 

77. What is meant by lyric poetry ? 

78. Define an elegy. 

79. What is pastoral poetry ? 

80. What is a didactic poem ? 

81. What is satirical poetry ? 



214: TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

82. What is prose ? 

83. Name the chief varieties of prose composition. 

84. What is a letter ? 

85. How may letters usually be classified ? 

86. What things are to be considered in writing a 
letter ? 

87. Give some general rules for letter writing. 

88. What is fiction ? 

89. What are the principal forms in which fiction ap- 
pears ? 

90. What is a biography ? 

91. What is an autobiography ? 

93. How does a discourse differ from other kinds of 
composition ? 

93. Name the principal kinds of discourses. 

94. What should be the style of an oration ? 

95. What is a sermon ? 

96. What are the parts which properly belong to a 
formal discourse ? 

97. What does invention, as used in rhetoric, mean ? 

98. Into what two branches is invention divided ? 

99. Which is more important, invention or style ? 
100. Give some directions to teachers for conducting 

work in composition. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 215 



ANSWERS. 
[ COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC. 

1. Composition is the art of arranging our thoughts 
and expressing them in appropriate language. — Bar- 
deen's Complete Rhetoric, p. 17. 

2. Rhetoric may be regarded as either a science or an 
art. As a science, it investigates, analyzes, and defines 
the principles of good writing ; as an art, it enables us 
to apply these principles, or, in other words, teaches us 
the best method of communicating our thoughts. — 
Quackenlos' Course of Composition and Rhetoric, pp. 
164, 165. 

3. Rhetoric is closely allied, on the one side, to Gram- 
mar, which determines the laws of language, and, on 
the other, to Logic, which determines the laws of 
thought. — Harfs Composition and Rhetoric, p. 17. 

4. From the study of Rhetoric two great advantages 
result; first, it enables us to discern faults aud beauties 
in the compositions of others ; and, secondly, it teaches 
us how to express and embellish our own thoughts, so 
as to produce the most forcible impression. — QuacJcen- 
los' Comp. and Rhet., p. 166. 

5. Rhetoric is divided into two parts, namely : Part 
I., Style ; Part II., Invention. — Harfs Comp. and Rhet., 
p. 18. 

6. Style is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the 
mode of expression. — Id., p. 19. 

7. It includes in its scope whatever, in the arts and 
contrivances of speech, can make the expression of 



216 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

thought more effective. In its lower forms it treats of 
punctuation and the use of cajjitals, and of other con- 
trivances of a mechanical sort, which help to give clear- 
ness to the meaning, while in its higher forms it enters 
upon the region of the Imagination and the Passions, 
and deals with the questions of Taste and. Fancy. — Id., 
p. 20. 

8. 1, Punctuation and Capitals; 2, Diction; 3, Sen- 
tences ; 4, Figures ; 5, Special Properties of Style ; 6, 
Versification; 7,- Poetry; 8, Prose Composition. — Id., 
p. 20. 

9. Invention is the most difficult part of the suhject, 
requiring no little maturity of mind on the part of the 
learner. Style, on the other hand, connects itself closely 
with grammatical studies, which always precede the 
study of rhetoric, and it has many details of a simple 
and positive character, about which the judgment of 
pupils may be exercised long before they can enter with 
profit upon the process of original thought required by 
invention. — Id., p. 18. 

10. Punctuation is a supplemental art, used to show 
the construction and meaning of sentences more dis- 
tinctly to the eye by means of certain points or stops. — 
KerVs Comp. and Rhet.,p. 77. 

11. The characters used in punctuation are as fol- 
lows : — Period (.), interrogation-point (?), exclamation- 
point (!), colon (:), semicolon (;), comma (,), dash ( — ), 
parentheses (()), and brackets ([]). — QuacTcenbos' 
Comp. and Rhet.,p. 86. 

12. EuLE I. — A period must be placed after every 
declarative and imperative sentence. Eule II. — A pe- 
riod must be placed after every abbreviated word. — Id., 
pp. 87, 89. 

13. An interrogation-point must be placed after every 
interrogative sentence, member, or clause. — Id., p. 91. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 217 

14. EuLE I. — The exclamation-point must be used at 
the close of every sentence, clause, or grammatical ex- 
pression intended to conyey strong emotion. Eule II. 
— The exclamation-point must be used after an inter- 
jection. Eule III. — Where the emotion to be expressed 
is very strong, more than one exclamation-point is some- 
times used. Harfs Comp. and Rhet., pp. 47, 48. 

15. The dash is used — 1. To show omission caused 
by interruption. 2. To show emphasis or suppressed 
feeling, or an unexpected turn in the thought or style. 
3. To set off a parenthesis, especially when emphatic, 
or when there are other points within it. 4. Before 
echoes, or where that is or namely is understood. — 
KerVs Comp. and Rhet., p. 81. 

16. Eule. Words inserted in the body of a sentence 
and nearly or quite independent of it in meaning and 
construction, should be inclosed with the marks of pa- 
renthesis. — Harfs Comp. and Rhet., pp. 54, 55. 

17. Eule. In correcting or modifying the expressions 
of another, by inserting words of your own, the words 
thus inserted should be enclosed in brackets. — Id., p. 56. 

18. Eule I. — A colon must be placed between the 
great divisions of a sentence, when minor subdivisions 
occur that are separated by semicolons. Eule II. — A 
colon must be placed before a formal enumeration of 
particulars, and a direct quotation, when referred to by 
the words thus, folloioing, as follotos, this, these, etc. 
Eule III. — A colon was formerly, and may now be 
placed between the members of a compound sentence, 
when there is no conjunction between them and the con- 
nection is slight. — Quachenhos' Comp. and Rhet., pp. 
97, 98. 

19 Eule I. — A semicolon must be placed between the 
members of compound sentences, unless the connection 
is exceedingly close. Eule II. — A semicolon must be 



218 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

placed between the great divisions of sentences when 
minor subdivisions occur that are set off by commas. 
EuLE III. — When a colon is placed before an enumera- 
tion of particulars, the objects enumerated must be 
separated by semicolons. Eule IV. — A semicolon must 
be placed before an enumeration of particulars, when the 
names of the objects merely are given, without any 
formal introductory words or accompanying description. 
Eule V. — A semicolon must be placed before the con- 
junction as, when it introduces an example. Eule VI. 
When several long clauses occur in succession, all hav- 
ing common dependence on some other clause or word, 
they must be separated by semicolons. — Id., pp. 100, 
101, 102. 

20. General Eule. — The comma is used to separate 
words, phrases, clauses, and short members, closely con- 
nected with the rest of the sentence, but requiring sepa- 
ration by some point in consequence of the construction 
or arrangement. — Id., p. 104. 

21. 1. A comma must be placed before and after every 
parenthetical word, phrase, adjunct, clause and expres- 
sion. 2. A comma must be placed after the logical 
subject of a sentence when it ends in a verb, or when it 
consists of several parts which are themselves separated 
by commas. 3. A comma must be placed before or, 
when it indroduces an equivalent, an explanatory word, 
or a clause defining the writer's meaning. 4. When, to 
avoid repetition, and, ^r, nor, or a verb previously used 
is omitted, a comma takes its place. — Id., pp. 106, 115, 
120. 

22. The apostrophe [ ' ] is used to denote the omission 
of one or more letters, or to mark the possessive case. 
The apostrophe is also used in forming the plurals of 
letters, figures, marks, etc. — Harvey's English Gram., 
p. 250. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 219 

23. The hyphen [ - J is used (1) to join the parts of 
compound words and expressions ; (2) to divide words 
into syllables ; (3) after a syllable at the end of a line, 
when the rest of the word is carried to the next line. — 
Id., p. 250. 

24. The quotation marks [ ^^ " ] are used to show 
that a passage is taken verbatim from some author. A 
quotation included within another should be preceded 
by a single inyerted comma and closed by a single apos- 
trophe. — Id., p. 250. 

25. Begin with a capital letter (1) the first word of a 
sentence, and (2) of a line of poetry ; (3) proper names 
and words derived from them ; (4) names of things per- 
sonified, and (5) most abbreviations ; and write in capi- 
tal letters (6) the words / and 0, and (7) numbers in 
Eoman notation ; (8) begin with a capital letter the first 
word of a direct quotation making complete sense and of 
a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, and (9) 
phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed. 
— Kellogg' s Rhetoric, 'pp. 22, 35. 

26. Diction is that part of Khetoric which treats of 
the relation and right use of words. The qualities of 
style most needed, so far as diction is concerned, are 
Purity, Propriety, and Precision. — Hart's Comp. and 
met, pp. 71, 72. 

27. An author's diction is pure when he uses such 
words as belong to the idiom of the language, in opposi- 
tion to words that 2irQ foreign, obsolete, newly coined, or 
without proper authority. — Id., p. 72. 

28. Propriety may be violated by using words that for 
the meaning intended are {a) inaccurate, or {b) inappro- 
priate. — Bardeen's Complete Rhet., p. 381. 

29. Precision requires the exact expression of the 
thought to be conveyed. It demands attention (1) to the 
words employed, and (2) to the construction, that in 



220 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

stating the thought the sentence may tell the truth, the 
whole truth, and nothing but the truth. — Id., p. 399. 

30. Sentences considered rhetorically, are divided 
into Periodic, Loose, Balanced, Short, and Long. — Harfs 
Comp. and Rhet., p. %'i. 

31. The writer should never require of the reader, in 
order to an understanding of the meaning, any greater 
degree of attention than is absolutely necessary. — Id,, p. 
110. 

32. EuleI. The words should be so arranged that the 
meaning cannot be mistaken. Eule II. The words 
should be so arranged as to give a conspicuous position to 
the two main parts of the sentence, namely, the principal 
subject and the principal predicate. Eule III. The sen- 
tence should be so constructed as to maintain unity of 
thought. Eule IV. A sentence should be so constructed 
as to give to the thought or meaning which it contains its 
full force. Eule V. A sentence should be so constructed 
as to have a pleasing effect upon the ear. — Id., fp. 104, 
117, 123, 131, 140. 

33. Figures are intentional derivations from the or- 
dinary s]3elling, form, construction, or application, of 
words. — QuacTcenhos' Comp. and Rhet., p. 235. 

34. They are arranged in four classes ; figures of or- 
thography, figures of etymology, figures of syntax, and 
figures of rhetoric. — Id., p. 235. 

35. Figures of orthography are intentional derivations 
from the ordinary spelling of words. They are two in 
number ; Mi-me'-sis and Ar'-cha-ism. — Id., p. 235. 

36. Figures of etymology are intentional derivations 
from the ordinary forms of words. Those most used are 
eight in number; A-phaer'-e-sis, Pros' -the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, 
A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, Di-ser'-e-sis, Syn-ger'-e-sis, 
Tme'-sis— /(?.,j9. 236. 

37. Figures of syntax are intentional derivation from 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 221 

tlie ordinary construction of words. Those most in use 
are five in number ; El-lip'-sis, Ple'-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, 
En-al'-la-ge, and Hy-per'-ba-ton. — Id., p. 237. 

38. A figure, in rlietoric, is some derivation from the 
plain and ordinary mode of expression, with a view of 
making the meaning more effective. — Harfs Comp. and 
Rhet., p. 154. 

39. The common statement concerning figures is, 1. 
That they enrich language, make it more attractive, and 
render it more copious. 2. That they bestow eleva- 
tion and dignity upon style when used judiciously. 3. 
That they afford pleasure in presenting two objects at 
once, which the mind can take in and compare with- 
out confusion, but even with increased distinctness. 4. 
That they present a clearer and more striking view of 
the principal object than can be expressed in simple 
terms. — Fowlei''s English Gram., pp. 668, 669. 

40. The chief figures are {a) Personification ; {h) Me- 
tonymy ; (c) Synecdoche ; {d) Hyperbole ; (e) Irony ; (/) 
Simile; {g) Metaphor. — BardeerCs Complete Rliet.,'p. 602. 

41. Personification endows the lower animals and in- 
animate objects with the attributes of human beings. — 
Id., p. 602. 

42. Metonymy interchanges correlatiye terms, as when 
we transpose, (1) The concrete and the abstract ; as, the 
crown, for royalty ; the fatal cup, for poison; etc., etc, 
(2) The effect and cause ; as, drunhenness, for wine; 
gray hairs, for old age. (3) The author and his works ; 
as, **I am reading ShaTcspere." — Id. p. 604, 

43. Synecdoche is using the name of a part for that 
of the whole, the name of the whole for that of a part, 
or a definite number for an indefinite : as, "The sea is 
covered with sails," i. e. ships ; " Ten thousand were on 
his right hand," i. e. a great numler. — Quackenhos' 
Comp. and Rhet., p. 249. 



222 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

44. Hyperbole is the exaggeration of attributes, or 
the assigning to a subject of a wonderful and impossible 
act as the result of ardent emotion; as, ''They [Saul 
and Jonathan] were sioifter tlian eagles, they were 
stronger tlian lions. — Id., p. 249. 

45. Irony is the figure of real contradiction. Irony 
expresses the opposite of what is meant. It bestows 
praise in such a manner as to convey disapprobation. 
It professes belief in a statement for the purpose of cast- 
ing ridicule upon it. — Bardeen's Complete Rhet., p. 605. 

46. Simile compares two things together, in order to 
show that they have qualities in common. To be effec- 
tive the point of likeness should be (1) unexpected, and 
(2) applicable to the thought conveyed. — Id., p. 605. 

47. Metaphor is simile without the form of compari- 
son, one object being spoken of not as like another, but 
as another ; as, "Man, thou pendulum 'twixt a smile 
and tear." — Id., p. 611. 

48. The danger in using figures of all kinds is that 
they will be employed for themselves, because they are 
ornamental or striking, and not because they best ex- 
press the thought. — Id., p. 631. 

49. The special properties of style may be considered 
under the following heads : Sublimity, Beauty, Wit, and 
Humor. — Hart's Comp. and Rhet., p. 198. 

50. The term suhlimity, for which grandeur is by 
some used as an equivalent, is applied to great and noble 
objects which produce a sort of internal elevation and 
expansion. — Qiiachenios' Comp. and Rliet., p. 194. 

51. The i^rincipal source of the sublime is might or 
power, in a state of active exertion. Hence the grandeur 
of earthquakes and volcanoes ; of great conflagrations ; 
of the stormy ocean and mighty torrent ; of lightning, 
tempests, and all violent commotions of the elements. — 
Id., p. 195. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 233 

53. 1. Firmness in the cause of truth and justice. 3. 
Generous self-sacrifice in behalf of another. 3. Self- 
possession and fearlessness in circumstances of danger. 
4. Exalted patriotism. — Id., pp. 204, 205. 

53. 1. Sublimity of subject. 2. A vivid conception of 
the strong points. 3. Suppression of belittling details. 
4. Simplicity and conciseness of expression. — Harfs 
Comp. and Rhet, pp. 303, 303, 304. 

54. Those who aim at the sublime are liable to fall 
into two faults — frigidity and bombast, — Quachenbos' 
Comp. and Rhet., p. 313. 

55. The only legitimate beauty of written language is 
the perfection with which it expresses the idea. Forget 
the idea, study beauty for the sake of beauty, permit 
the insertion or the retention of an unnecessary sen- 
tence for the sake of its euphony, and the composition 
is degraded from the expression of thought into some- 
thing akin to riddle-making. — Bai'deen's Complete 
Rhet., pp. 483, 484. 

56. Wit is that quality of thought and its expression 
which produces in the mind, an agreeable sensation 
either by the association of objects not usually con- 
nected, or on account of the peculiar imagery with 
which they are clothed. — Ed. 

57. This agreeable surprise is excited in four ways : — 
1, By degrading elevated things. 3. By aggrandizing 
insignificant things. 3, By representing objects in an 
unusual light by means of singular imagery. 4. By 
paronomasia, or play upon words. — Quachenios' Comp. 
and Rliet., p. 336. 

58. Humor is not, like wit, sudden and short-lived. 
It often extends through entire productions ; and, in* 
deed, forms the staple of comic writing in general. 
Novelty, moreover, is not essential to humor. Its truth- 
fulness to nature prevents it from being tiresome ; and 



224 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

it endures reading and re-reading, which would make 
mere wit absolutely disgusting. — Id., p. 232. 

69. Versification is the art of making verses. — Id., p. 
402. 

60. A verse as we have seen, is a metrical line of a 
length and rhythm determined by rules which usage has 
sanctioned. — Id., p. 402. 

61. Ehythm is the harmonious arrangement of sylla- 
bles in reference to sound. — Harfs Comp. and Rhet., p. 
225. 

62. It is the greater perfection of its rhythm. — Id., 
p. 225. 

63. Measures (or feet) are the equivalent parts, each 
consisting of some uniform combination of accented and 
unaccented syllables, into which the line (or verse) is 
divided. — Bardeeri's Complete RJiet., p. 635. 

- 64. The metre depends on the number and character 
of the feet employed. — Quachenbos^ Comp. and Rhet., 
p. 404. 

65. According to the character of the feet, metres are 
distinguished as iambic, trocliaic, anapestic, and dac- 
tylic. — Id., p. 404. 

Q>Q. According to the number of feet, the varieties of 
metre are as follows : 77ionometer, or measure composed of 
one foot ; dimeter, of two feet ; trimeter, of three ; tet- 
rameter, of four ; pentameter, of five ; hexameter, of six ; 
lieptameter, of seven; octometer, of eight. — Id., p. 404. 

67. Scanning is the process of dividing a line into the 
feet of which it is composed. — Id., p. 405. 

68. Ehyme is a correspondence in sound between syl- 
lables, which, in the scheme of the verse, have some re- 
lation to each other. — Harfs Comp. and Rhet., p. 232. 

69. Blank verse is verse that does not rhyme. — Id., p. 
237. 

70. A stanza is a number of lines taken together, and 



COMPOSITION AND BEETOBIG. 225 

so adjusted to each other as to form one whole. — Id., p. 
240. 

71. Poetry is that division of discourse which is 
rhythmical and metrical, and is addressd to the feel- 
ings. — Kellogg' s Rhetoric, p. 228. 

72. Poetry differs from prose in three particulars : 
(1) in its mission, (2) in its style, and (3) in its/orm. — 
Id., p. 228. 

73. The principal varieties of poetry are Epic, Dra- 
matic, Lyric, Elegiac, Pastoral, Didactic, and Satirical. 
— Quackeiibos'' Comp. and Rhet., p. 418. 

74. An Epic poem is a recital of some great and he- 
roic enterprise. Harfs Comp. and Rhet., p. 263. 

75. Homer's Iliad and Virgil's ^neid are the master- 
pieces of antiquity in this department of poetry. In 
English literature, Milton's Paradise Lost is incom- 
parably the greatest epic. — Quackenbos' Comp. and 
Rhet., p. 419. 

76. The greatest dramatist in English literature, the 
greatest perhaps in all literature, is Shakespeare. — 
Harfs Comp. and Rhet., p. 268. 

77. Lyric poetry, as its name denotes, meant origi- 
nally poetry to be sung to the accompaniment of the lyre. 
The most common form of Lyric poetry is the ode or 
song. Odes or songs are of six kinds : sacred, heroic, 
moral, amatory, comic, and Bacchanalian. — Id., p. 268. 

78. An Elegy is a poem, usually of a sad and mourn- 
ful kind, celebrating the virtues of some one deceased. — 
Id., p. 270. 

79. Pastoral poetry means properly that which cele- 
brates shepherd or rustic life. — Id., p. 271. 

80. A didactic poem is one which aims chiefly to give 
instruction. — Id., p. 272. 

81. Satirical poetry is that in which the weaknesses, 
follies, or wickedness of men are held up to ridicule, or 

15 



236 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

rebuked with serious severity. — Quachenlos' Comp. and 
Rliet., p. 433. 

83. Prose is the term applied to all composition which 
is not in verse. — Hart's Comp. and Eliet., p. 373. 

83. The chief varieties of prose composition are let- 
ters, diaines, news, editorials, reviews, essays, treatises, 
travels, history, fiction, discourses. — Id., p. 373. 

84. A letter is a written communication addressed by 
the writer to some other person or persons. — Id., p. 373. 

85. Letters are usually (1) of friendship, (3) of 
courtesy, (3) of business, (4) to newspapers. — Bardeen's 
Complete Rhet., p.lT2. 

86. In writing a letter there are five things to con- 
sider — the heading, the introduction, the body of the let- 
ter, the conclusion, and the superscription. — Kellogg' s 
Rhetoric, p. 314. 

87. 1. Answer promptly. 3. Write frankly but dis- 
creetly. 3. Write naturally and directly. 4. Be sure 
your penmanship is distinct. 5. Be careful where you 
put your signature. 6. Fold neatly. 7. Direct care- 
fully. — Bardeen^s Complete Rhet., p. 307. 

88. Fiction is that branch of composition which con- 
sists in the narration of imaginary incidents. With 
this narration, descriptions of material objects, of nat- 
ural scenery, and of persons, are generally combined. — 
Quac]ce7ibos^ Comp. and Rhet., p. 374. 

89. The principal forms in which fiction appears are 
tales, novels, romances, and dialogues. — Id., p. 375. 

90. A biography is the history of one individual. 
Biography is, therefore, a species of historical composi- 
tion. — Harfs Comp. and Rhet., p. 398. 

91. Autobiography is a biography of a person written 
by himself.— M, p. 398. 

93. A discourse differs from other kinds of composi- 
tion which have been described, in that it is intended to 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 237 

be read or spoken to the persons addressed, instead of 
being read by them. — Id., p. 301. 

93. The principal kinds of discourses are orations, ad- 
dresses, sermons, lectures, and S2)eeches. — Id., p. 301. 

94. The style of an oration should be elevated and 
forcible. It should not lack ornament ; and whatever 
embellishments are introduced must be of the most ex- 
alted character. — QuacTcenios' Comp. and Rliet., p. 393. 

95. A sermon is a formal discourse by a clergyman, 
intended for religious instruction, and founded usually 
on some passage of Scripture. — Hart's Comp. and 
RJiet., p. 303. 

96. The parts which properly belong to a formal dis- 
course are — 1. The introduction. 3. The statement of 
the subject. 3. The main discourse. 4. The conclu- 
sion. — Id., p. 304. 

97. Invention, as used in rhetoric, means the finding 
out what to say. — Id., p. 306. 

98. Inventon is divided into two branches : — 1. Stor- 
ing the mind with knowledge. 3. Selecting from this 
general store of knowledge the thoughts needed for any 
particular occasion, — Id,, p. 306. 

99. Invention is, from the necessity of the case, of 
more importance than style. It is more important surely 
to have something of substantial interest and value to 
say, than to be able to trick out vapid nothings in forms 
of grace and elegance. — Id., p. 307. 

100. 1. Beginners in composition should not be al- 
lowed to write on abstract subjects, but on some con- 
crete, visible object with which they are familiar. 

3. In assigning subjects to a class, it is well, at first, 
to help them in making an outline of the things to be 
said about it. 

3. At first aim only at copiousness, correcting no 
faults except those in grammar and punctuation. 



228 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

4. When they begin to write freely, then begin to 
criticise and correct. Proceed with only one class of 
faults at a time. 

5. After a class can write with facility and general 
correctness, than begin to experiment upon the use of 
figures and other graces of style. — Id., p. 308. 



ANATOMY, PSYSIOLOaY, AND HYGIENE, 229 



QUESTIONS. 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

1. How are objects in the material world dirided ? 

2. "What is included in each of these divisions ? 

3. Name some of the distinctions between organic 
and inorganic matter. 

4. Name some of the distinctions- between animals 
and plants. 

5. What is an organ of the body ? 

6. What is the function of an organ ? 

7. In what two conditions may organized matter be 
studied ? 

8. What science is derived from the first ? From 
the second ? 

9. In its broadest sense what is physiology ? 

10. What is the office of anatomy ? 

11. Into what branches are anatomy and physiology 
divided ? 

13. What is the distinction between human anatomy 
and physiology, and comparative anatomy and physi- 
ology ? 

13. Of what does human physiology treat ? 

14. What are some of the objects of studying physi- 
ology ? 

15. What is hygiene ? 

16. How many chemical elements are found in the 
human body ? 

17. Name these elements. 

18. Which of the above are the most important ele- 
ments ? 



230 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

19. In what form do the other elements exist in the 
body ? 

20. In what do sulphur and phosphorus exist ? Sod- 
ium ? Iron ? 

21. What do we learn from the above facts ? 

22. How does the proportion of solids and fluids in 
the body vary ? 

23. What is the importance of the fluids of the body ? 

24. Name the principal fluids. 

25. Name the principal solids. 

26. What is meant by tissues ? 

27. From what do tissues and organs originate ? 

28. Describe a cell. 

29. What is protoplasm ? 

30. How do cells multiply ? 

31. By what are the various tissues formed, and what 
gives them their individual characteristics ? 

32. Into what divisions may the subject of physiology 
be divided ? 

33. What is the skeleton ? 

34. What is the office of the bones ? 

35. What is the composition of the bones ? 

36. What is the use of these materials ? 

37. Describe the structure of the bones. 

38. Describe the growth of bone. 

39. What is the strength of human bones regarded 
as levers ? 

40. What is the weight of an adult skeleton ? 

41. How many bones in the human body ? 

42. How are the bones of the skeleton divided ac- 
cording to location ? 

43. How are they divided according to shape ? 

44. Describe the bones of the head. 

45. Describe the bones of the trunk. 

46. What important cavities in the trunk ? 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 231 

47. Describe tlie spinal column. 

48. What are the offices of the spinal column ? 

49. What effect upon a man's height is produced by 
the elasticity of the plates of cartilage between the 
vertebrje ? 

50. What is the office of the pelvis ? 

51. Name the bones of the upper extremities. 
53. Describe the bones of the fore-arm. 

53. Describe the construction of the wrist. 

54. Name the bones of the lower extremities. 

55. What is cartilage ? 

56. What is meant by ossification ? 

57. What is the periosteum ? 

58. What are the Haversian canals ? 

59. What are processes ? 

60. What is the hyoid bone ? 

61. What is a joint ? 

62. How many kinds of movable joints are there ? 

63. How are bones forming joints held together ? 

64. What serves as a lubricator to the joints ? 

65. How is the hinge-joint constructed ? 

66. Describe the ball-and-socket joint. 

67. Describe the arthrodial joint. 

68. How does nature repair a broken bone ? 

69. Describe the structure of the teeth. 

70. How do teeth differ from ordinary bones ? 

71. Do the teeth properly belong to the skeleton ? 

72. What is the time of appearance and number of 
the temporary teeth ? Of the permanent teeth ? 

73. Give the names and the number of the perma- 
nent teeth in each jaw. 

74. What is digestion ? 

75. Name the organs of digestion. 

76. Why do we need food ? 

77. Name the principal processes of nutrition. 



233 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

78. Give name and position of the salivary glands, 

79. Describe the construction of these glands. 

80. What is the office of these glands ? 

81. Describe the pharynx. 
83. Describe the oesophagus. 

83. What peculiarity have the muscles of the oesoph- 



agus 



p 



84. Describe the stomach. 

85. How many coatings, compose the walls of the 
stomach ? 

86. Describe the outer or serous coat. 

87. Describe the middle or muscular coat. 

88. Describe the inner or mucous coat. 

89. What is the gastric juice ? 

90. What is the amount of gastric juice ? 

91. What are the divisions of the intestines ? 
93. Describe the lacteals. 

93. Describe the liver. 

94. Describe the pancreas. 

95. What is the spleen ? 

96. What three distinct stages in the work of diges- 
tion ? 

97. Explain the chemical action of saliva. 

98. Describe the action of the gastric juice. 

99. What is this process of stomach digestion called? 

100. Is this process thoroughly understood ? 

101. What action have the bile and pancreatic juice ? 
103. What is this action called ? 

103. What is meant by absorption ? 

104. How is absorption effected ? 

105. Describe absorption by lacteals. 

106. Describe absorption by blood-vessels. 

107. Describe the thoracic duct. 

108. Describe the lymphatics. 

109. Into what groups may food stuffs be divided ? 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 233 

110. What time is required to digest food ? 

111. What are some of the conditions necessary to 
perfect digestion ? 

113. Name the organs of circulation. 

113. What are the offices of the blood and its circu- 
lation ? 

114. Describe the composition of the blood. 

115. When and by whom was the circulation of the 
blood discovered ? 

116. What is the average quantity of blood in the 
human body ? 

117. Describe the heart. 

118. Describe the valves of the heart. 

119. How do the walls of the ventricles compare with 
those of the auricles ? 

120. What are the arteries ? 

121. Describe the arteries, 

122. What are the veins ? 

123. Describe the valves in the veins. 

124. How do veins vary in size and number ? 

125. Describe the capillaries. 

126. What important oiDcrations are performed in the 
capillaries ? 

127. How do they aid in disposing of waste matter ? 

128. What is meant by the greater and the lesser cir- 
culation ? 

129. Describe the course of the blood in circulation. 

130. What are the forces which propel the blood 
through the body ? 

131. Describe the movements of the heart. 

132. With what rapidity does the heart act ? 

133. What length of time is required for the complete 
circulation of the blood ? 

134. What is the office of the corpuscles in the blood ? 

135. Of what is the plasma composed ? 



234 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

136. What is the specific gravity and temperature of 
the blood ? 

137. What is meant by respiration ? 

138. Name the principal organs of respiration or 
breathing. 

139. What are the objects of respiration ? 

140. Describe the larynx. 

141. Describe the trachea. 

142. What is the use of the bronchi ? 

143. Describe the construction of the trachea. 

144. With what are the air-tubes lined ? 

145. Describe the lungs. 

146. What is an air-cell ? 

147. What is the extent of the air-cells in the lungs ? 

148. Of what is air composed ? 

149. Of what two movements does respiration, or 
breathing, consist ? 

150. What takes place in the lungs during the act of 
respiration ? 

151. How often does respiration take place ? 

152. By what organs is heat produced ? 

153. What is the theory of the production of animal 
heat ? 

154. Describe the operation in the lungs which is sup- 
posed to produce heat. 

155. What is the temperature of the human system ? 

156. Describe the vocal cords. 

157. How do these cords act in producing voice ? 

158. How are high and low tones produced ? 

159. What determines the compass of the voice ? The 
quality ? 

160. What is meant by " change of voice" ? 

161. What are muscles ? 

162. Describe the structure of muscles. 

163. What are the uses of the muscles ? 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EYQIENE. 235 

164. What property of the muscles enables them to 
move the diiferent parts of the body ? 

165. How are muscles arranged ? 

166. Why do muscles contract ? 

167. How are muscles classified ? 

168. What are yoluntary muscles ? 

169. What are involuntary muscles ? 

170. What is the number of muscles in the human 
body? 

171. How many single or unmated muscles are there ? 
173. How are muscles usually attached to the bones ? 

173. What is the oflBce of the nervous system ? 

174. Wl '^t are the principal organs of the nervous 
system ? 

175. Name the principal divisions of the brain. 

176. What seem to be the functions of the cerebrum ? 

177. What seem to be the functions of the cerebel- 
lum ? 

178. What is the function of the medulla oblongata ? 

179. Of what two kinds of substance does the brain 
consist ? 

180. Describe the membranes which enclose the brain. 

181. Where do nerves have their origin ? 

182. From their origin how are they divided ? 

183. From their office how are nerves divided ? 

184. What are the functions of the skin ? 

185. Of how many layers does the skin consist ? 

186. What does the true skin contain ? 

187. What is the office of the oil-tubes ? 

188. What office have the lymphatics in the skin ? 

189. What are the uses of perspiration ? 

190. By what organisms are sensations produced ? 

191. In what does the structure of the sense of touch 
consist ? 

192. What is the organ of taste ? 



336 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

193. What gives rise to the sensation of taste ? 

194. In what does the sense of smell reside ? 

195. Describe the stmcture of the eye. 

196. How do we see ? 

197. What are the divisions of the ear ? 

198. Describe the middle ear. 

199. Describe the labyrinth or internal ear. 

200. How do we hear ? 

201. Mention some things to be observed in the hy- 
giene of the bones. 

202. Mention some things to be observed in the care 
of the organs of digestion. 

203. Mention some things to be observed in the hy- 
giene of the muscles. 

204. Mention some things to be observed in the care 
of the organs of circulation and respiration. 

205. Mention some things necessary to the health of 
the nervous system. 

206. What is a poison ? 

207. What is a stimulant ? 

208. What is meant by narcotics ? 

209. Name some of the narcotic poisons and describe 
their effects. 

210. From what is alcohol obtained ? 

211. What is the general effect of alcohol when taken 
into the body ? 

212. What are some of the physiological objections to 
the use of alcohol ? 

213. What is the effect of alcohol on the digestive or- 
gans ? 

214. What is the effect of alcohol on the liver ? 

215. Describe the effect of alcohol on the organs of 
circulation. 

216. Describe the effect of alcohol on the brain and 
nerves. 



AN'ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 237 

217. What effect has alcohol upon the heat of the 
body ? 

218. What effect has alcohol on length of life ? 

219. To what are the injurious effects of tobacco 
due ? 

220. What are some of the effects of using tobacco ? 

221. Why is bathing important to health ? 

222. Of what materials should undergarments be 
made ? 



238 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS. 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOaY AND HYGIENE. 

1. All objects in the material world are divided into 
Organic and Inorganic. — Hitchcock'' s Anatomy and 
Physiology, p. 5. 

2. The principle of life is always associated with or- 
ganic, but never with inorganic bodies. Organic bodies 
embrace animals and plants ; everything else in the 
material world is inorganic, as air, water, minerals, 
rocks, and soils. — Id,, p. 5. 

3. An organized body consists of an assemblage of 
parts, called organs, having a mutual relation to, and 
dependence upon, each other ; these taken together form 
an individual, a being; therefore the parts when 
separated are incomplete, as is seen in a divided plant. 
Not so with the imorganized body : each fragment of a 
rock possesses all the essential characteristics of the 
original mass. Organized bodies demand nourishment. 
Unorganized bodies require no food. Organized bodies 
grow by means of particles of matter conveyed to their 
interior and these assimilated. Unorganized bodies in- 
crease in size by simple layers upon the exterior, the 
former have a limit in size ; the latter have no natural 
limit. Organized bodies have their period of duration, 
they decay and die. In the Inorganic world, we speak of 
the mountains as everlasting. Organized bodies re- 
produce themselves ; Unorganized bodies have no power 
of reproduction. — Condensed from Cutter* s Anat., Phys. 
and Hyg.,p. 12. 



AI^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 239 

4. Animals take in oxygen and give out carbonic acid 
gas ; Plants take in carbonic acid gas and give out 
oxygen. Animals subsist on the products of the animal 
and vegetable kingdoms ; Plants, upon those of the 
mineral kingdom. Animals possess the power of sensa- 
tion and voluntary motion ; plants, neither. — Id,, pp. 
12, 13. 

5. Any part of the body which does a special work is 
called an organ. It is simply several tissues working 
together as a whole, and specially fitted to do a particular 
thing. — BlaisdelVs Young Folk's Phys., p. 5. 

6. The special work which an organ has to do is called 
the function or use of that organ. — Id., p. 5. 

7. There are two conditions in which we may study 
organized matter ; namely, as living beings and as dead 
bodies. — Comings' Class- Booh of Phys., p. 10. 

8. The science of Physiology is derived from the first 
method, and the science of Anatomy from the second. — 
Id., p, 10. 

9. Physiology is that department of natural science 
which treats of the organs and their functions, in plants 
and animals. — Weister's Unabridged. 

10. Anatomy teaches the number, size, situation, and 
composition of the various parts, with their relations to 
each other. — Comings' Class-Booh of Phys., p. 10. 

11. Anatomy and Physiology in their most extended 
use, apply to all organized beings, though they are na- 
turally divided into the several branches of Vegetable 
Anatomy and Physiology, and Animal Anatomy and 
Physiology. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are 
again divided into Comparative Anatomy and Physi- 
ology, and Human Anatomy and Physiology. — Id., p. 10. 

12. If the organs of man alone be described, the 
science is called Human Anatomy and Physiology. If 
the description embrace the lower animals, it is called 



240 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Comparative Anatomy and Physiology. — HitchcocWs 
Anatomy and Physiology, p. 6. 

13. Human Physiology is the science which treats 
of the life of man — of the way in which he lives, and 
moves, and has his being. It teaches how man is begot- 
ten and born, how he attains maturity, and how he dies. 
—Eirh's Hand-Booh of Fhys., p. 13. 

14. It teaches us how to take care of our bodies so as 
to preserve strength and length in life. It teaches us 
what to do in case of accidents to our bodies, how to 
prevent disease and to avoid pain. — JSfotes on Phys. Ed. 

15. The term Hygiene has been applied to that branch 
of study which includes all the different methods, medi- 
cal or otherwise, devised for the preservation of the 
health ; for Hygiea, in the ancient mythology, was the 
goddess of health. — Dunglison's School Phys., p. 14. 

16. Of the sixty-five chemical elements or simple 
bodies known to exist, only fifteen have been found as 
normal constituents of the human body. — Hitchcock's 
Anatomy and Physiology, p. 6. 

17. Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, 
phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, 
chlorine, flourine, silicon, iron, manganese. — Id., p. 6. 

18. The first three of the above elements are found in 
all the solids and fluids of the body, without exception. 
The first four occur in all the solid parts, and in all the 
fluids except fat. They form the chief and most impor- 
tant ingredients in animals and plants.-r— /(t:?., pp. 6, 7. 

19. With scarcely an exception, these elements exist 
in the body as compounds ; that is, two or more of them 
are combined, as in water, in oxyds, and in various salts. 
— Id., p. 7. 

20. Sulphur and phosphorus exist in albumen and 
fi brine, as well as in the brain, about XTiyth of its weight 
being phosphorus. Bones are more than half made up 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EYOIENE. 241 

of jihosphate of lime, and they contain a small per cent, 
of phosphate of magnesia. Sodium in the form of a 
chlorid (common salt), is found in every solid and fluid 
in the body. Iron forms about the 2000th part of the 
blood, and it exists also in the muscles, hair, and milk. 
—Id, p. 7. 

21. From these facts we learn that our food and drink 
should contain the fifteen ingredients above described. 
Milk and eggs are the only articles that do contain them 
all ; and hence, the importance of variety in diet. And 
the fact that we are obliged to use ten mineral ingredi- 
ents in our food, shows the absurdity of a jjrevalent 
prejudice that no mineral should ever be taken as a 
medicine. — Id., p. 7. 

22. In different individuals, and at different periods 
of life, the proportion of solids and fluids varies. In 
youth, the fluids are more abundant than in advanced 
life. — Cutter's Anat. Phys. and Hyg., p. 17. 

23. The fluids not only contain the materials from 
which every part of the body is formed, but they are the 
medium for conveying the waste, decayed particles of 
matter from the system. — Id., p. 17. 

24. The fluids of the body are blood, chyle, lymph, 
saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, synovia, mucous, 
and serum. Bile, sweat and urine are excretions. — 
Loughborough's Phys. and Hyg., p. 19. 

25. The solids of the body are bones, teeth, cartilages, 
ligaments, muscles, nerves, vessels, viscera, membranes, 
skin, hair, and pails. — Id., p. 19. 

26. The solid parts of the body are called tissues. — 
Hygiene for Young People, A. B. Palmer, p. 41. 

26. All the tissues and organs of the body originate 

from a minute form called a cell, which divides into 

other cells, and these, by uniting together, are developed 

into tissues. Organs are made up by a combination of 

16 



242 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tissues. Several organs grouped together form a system 
or apparatus. In the apparatus of digestion, for exam- 
ple, there are several organs, such as the stomach, intes- 
tines, etc., which are made up of different kinds of tis- 
sues. — DunglisoTv' s School Phys., p. 19. 

28. A simple cell consists of a delicate sac containing 
protoplasm, in which is another very minute sac, called the 
nucleus, v/hich contains yet another sac — the nucleolus, 
or little nucleus. Very minute particles, or granules, 
are also seen. A good example of a simple animal cell, 
on a large scale, is an egg : the lining of the shell is the 
cell-wall or sac ; the white is the contained protoplasm ; 
the yolk is the nucleus ; and its germ spot is the nucle- 
olus. — Gutter's Analyt., Anat., Phys. and Hyg., p. 15. 

29. Protoplasm is the formal basis of all living bodies. 
Animal Protoplasm, or Blastema, as it is often called, is 
an albuminous fluid, generally regarded as identical with 
the liquor sanguinis, or fluid portion of the blood, in 
which the red corpuscles are suspended. From this or- 
ganizable fluid every material part of living beings is 
formed ; here is Unity of Suistance. — Id., p. 14. 

30. Cells multiply in three ways : 1st, A cell may 
elongate, contracting in the middle like an hour-glass or 
dumb-bell, by the infolding of the cell-wall, till a com- 
j)lete division is made and two cells are formed, each 
with its own share of the original nucleus ; the new cells 
divide in a similar manner, and like divisions are repeated 
indefinitely ; 2d, Another form of multiplication is by 
the division of the n\xc\cw% within the cell ; each part ap- 
propriates a portion of the fluid, and at length vesicles are 
formed, the old cell-wall breaks, and the vesicles develop 
into perfect cells ; and 3d, Cells are sometimes developed 
de novo from the protoplasm, which contains nuclei and 
granules. — Id., p. 16. 

31. By the various aggregations and transformations 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOOY, AND HYGIENE. 243 

of cells tlie different tissues of the body are formed, and 
their individual characters depend upon the peculiar 
selecting power of these cells.— J<:^.,^. 17. 

32. Osteology, or an account of the bones or frame- 
work of the system. 

Myology, an account of the muscles or the moving 
powers of the system. 

Splanchnology, or the nutritive organs, 

Angiology, an account of the circulating system of ar- 
teries and Yeins. 

Pneumonology, or an account of the respiratory, vocal, 
and calorific organs. 

Ichorology, or the lymphatic and secreting system. 

Neurology, or the history of the nervous system, the 
vivifying power. 

The Inlets of the soul, or the senses. — Hitchcoclc's Anaf. 
and Phys., pp. 29, 30. 

33. The internal framework of the human body con- 
sists of bones, which, united by strong ligaments, con- 
stitute the skeleton. — Gutter's Anat. and Phys., p. 36. 

34. The bones have three principal uses : 1. To pro- 
tect the delicate organs ; 2. To serve as levers on which 
the muscles may act to produce motion ; and 3. To pre- 
serve the shape of the body. — SteeWs Fourteen Weelcs in 
Physiology, p. 19. 

35. The bones are composed of animal matter, or jelly, 
and of mineral matter, — lime, etc. — Brand's Lessons on 
Human Body, p. 6. 

36. The mineral matter gives hardness and stiffness to 
the bones. The animal matter gives toughness and elas- 
ticity. — Id., p. 6. 

37. The bones are hard externally, but are somewhat 
softer, and hollow within. The hollow portions are 
filled with a spongy substance composed of marrow and 
blood-vessels. In infancy the bones are only cartilage ; 



244 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

but this gradually hardens by additions of mineral mat- 
ter, and in a few years becomes firm bone. In early life 
the bones are so tough as not to be easily broken ; but 
in old age the greater amount of earthy matter in them 
causes brittleness, and when broken they do not heal so 
quickly as in youth. — Id., pp. 6, 7. 

38. The growth of a bone, as a general rule, takes 
place only by additions to its free ends and surfaces. The 
blood circulates freely through the bones, and supplies 
them with materials required for their growth and nour- 
ishment. — Id., p. 7. 

39. The power of the human bones as levers when 
compared with different substances is remarkable. Bone 
when used as a lever is 22 times as strong as sandstone, 
3| times as strong as lead, nearly 2| times as strong as 
elm and ash, and 2 times as strong as box, yew, and oak 
timber. — HitchcocTc' s Anat. and Phys., pp. 33, 33. 

40. The weight of the skeleton is as 10. 5 to 100, or about 
one-tenth the weight of the whole body. And since the av- 
erage weight of an adult man is 136 pounds, the weight 
of an adult skeleton is about 13.5 pounds. — Id., p. 32. 

41. There are two hundred and eight bones in the 
human body besides the teeth. Some anatomists reckon 
more than this number, others less, for the reason that, 
at different periods of life, the number of pieces of which 
bone is formed, varies. For example : The breast-bone, 
in infancy, has eight pieces ; in youth three ; in old age, 
but one. — Cutter's Anat., Phys. and Hyg., p. 32. 

42. They are divided, for convenience, into four parts: 
1st. The bones of the head. 2d. The bones of the trunk. 
3d. The bones of the upper extremities. 4th. The bones 
of the lower extremities. — Id., p. 32. 

43. Bones are divided according to their shape into 
four classes : long, flat, short and irregular. — HitchcocFs 
Anat. and Phys., p. 35. 



Alf ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 34.5 

44. There are thirty bones in the head, and they are 
located as follows : skull, 8 bones ; face, 14 bones ; ears, 
8 bones. The bones of the skull form a hollo\y or 
cavity, in which the brain is situated. The bones of the 
skull are united by a sort of notched joint, similar to 
what carpenters name " dove-tailed " joint. These 
Joints are called sutures. The form of the skull is oval, 
its narrower end being in front. It is never perfectly 
symmetrical, and differs in shape and size according to 
age, the individual, and the race. The frontal, occipi- 
tal, parietal and temporal bones consist of two hard 
plates, with a spongy layer between. The elastic pack- 
ing between the bones, at the joints, prevents much of 
the jar from blows. All the bones of the head, except- 
ing the lower jaw, are immovable. — Brand's Lessons on 
Human Body, pp. 10, 11. 

45. The trunk is that portion of the body situated 
between the upper and lower extremities. It contains 
fifty-four bones located as follows : the spine, 24 bones ; 
the ribs, 24 bones ; the pelvis, 4 bones ; the sternum, 1 
bone ; root of the tongue, 1 bone. — Id., p. 12. 

46. The trunk has two important cavities. The up- 
per one called the tliorax, or chest, consists of a bony 
framework formed by the breast-bone, ribs, and back- 
bone. It contains the lungs and the heart. The lower 
part or abdomen, holds the stomach, liver, bowels, kid- 
neys, and other important organs. — BlaisdelVs Young 
Folk's Phys., p. 19. 

47. The spinal column consists of a chain of 26 small 
bones, named vertehrcp,. It is channeled out for the re- 
ception of the spinal cord. The joints of the vertebrse 
are remarkable for the thick layers of cartilage which 
separate the adjacent surfaces of bone. The amount of 
motion between any two of these bones is not great ; but 
these little movements, taken together, admit of very 



246 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

considerable flexibility in several directions. — Hutclii- 
soti's Laws of Health, p. 17. 

48. 1. It must support the head ; 2, furnish an axis 
of support for the other parts of the body ; 3, allow a 
bending and somewhat rotary movement ; 4, furnish a 
basis for the attachment of muscles ; 5, provide pas- 
sages and protection for the spinal cord and nerves ; 6, 
the whole must be arranged with reference to the im- 
portance and delicacy of the brain. — Cutter's Anat., 
Phys. and Hyg., p. 56. 

49. The elasticity of these plates of cartilage is so 
great, that we are actually about half an inch shorter 
when we go to bed than when we get up in the morn- 
ing, by reason of their flattening out under the weight 
of the erect position. — Young Folk's Phys., p. 20. 

A man is somewhat shorter in old age than at earlier 
periods of his life, because long-continued pressure of 
the weight of the head and upper parts of the body, to- 
gether with the burdens of labor, overcome the elasticity 
of the pads, and they remain thin or compressed. The 
backbone thus becomes slightly shortened. — Brand's 
Lessons on the Human Body, p. 16. 

50. The office of the pelvis is to provide a strong 
foundation for the support of the bones of the spine and 
for the weight of the body above it. The pelvis also 
furnishes sockets for the attachment of the thigh-bones, 
audit sustains the lower extremities. — Brand's Lessons 
on the Human Body, p. 18. 

51. The upper extremities contain sixty-four bones : 
The scapula (shoulder-blade) ; the clavicle (collar-bone) ; 
the humerus (first bone of the arm) ; the ulna and ra- 
dius (bones of the fore-arm) ; the carpus (wrist) ; the 
metacarpus (palm of the hand) ; and the phalanges 
(fingers and thumb). — GuttefsAnat., Phys. and Hyg., 
V. 39. 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOar, AND RYOIENE. 247 

52. The bones of the fore-arm are called the radius and 
the ulna. The radius is on the thumb side, and the ulna 
on the side of the little finger. The radius is joined to 
the humerus and to the ulna in such a way that it rolls 
over on the ulna, and turns the palm of the hand up or 
down. The ulna is so joined to the humerus that it can 
only move forward and backward. The radius is joined 
closely to the hand, and, when it rolls over the ulna, 
carries the hand with it. — Smith's Elementary Phys. 
and Hyg., p. 24. 

53. The wrist or carpus consists of eight very irregu- 
lar bones, arranged in two rows. One of tliese rows ar- 
ticulates with the bones of the arms, the other with the 
bones of the hand. The bones are held so firmly together 
by ligaments that they are seldom displaced. — Brand's 
Lessons on Human Body, p. 25. 

54. The lower extremities contain sixty bones : the 
femur (thigh bone) ; the patella (knee-pan) ; the tihia 
(shin-bone) ; the _y?5z<?a (small bone of the leg); \he tarsus 
(instep) ; the metatarsus (middle of the foot) ; and the 
phalanges (toes). — Gutter's Anat., Phys. and Hyg.,pA'Z. 

55. Cartilage is a dense, firm substance, nearly related 
to bone, but it lacks the mineral ingredients of bone, 
which makes it softer and more elastic. — Hotze's First 
Lessons in Phys., p. dQ. 

56. The process of ossification is the deposition of 
mineral matter in the cartilage. — Id., p. 14. 

57. The bones are closely covered with a very firm, 
whitish-yellow membrane, very smooth. This is called 
the periosteum. This membrane encloses the vessels 
which convey nutriment to the bones. It is to this per- 
iosteum that the ligaments and tendons are attached, as 
they cannot fasten to the bone itself. — Loughhorough's 
Hand-Booh of Health, pp. 41, 42. 

58. In this membrane is a fine network of blood ves- 



248 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

sels from which a countless number of little vessels pass 
directly into canals in the bone. These are called Haver- 
sian canals. They run through every part of the bone. 
— Small's Elementary Phys. and Hyg., p. 29. 

59. The surfaces of bones are quite uneven, presenting 
in many places prominent projections, which serve as a 
firm point of attachment for muscles and ligaments. 
These are called processes, and are generally found near 
the extremities of bones, and are largest where the great- 
est strength of muscle and ligament is required, as shown 
in the bones of the lower extremities. — HitcJicocJc's Anai. 
and Phys., p. 35. 

60. Under the lower Jaw is a little horseshoe-shaped 
bone called the hyoid bone, because it is shaped like the 
Greek letter v. The root of the tongue is fastened to its 
bend, and the larynx is hung from it as from a hook. 
The hyoid, like the knee-pan, is not connected with any 
other bone. — BlaisdelVs Young FoWs Phys., p. 23. 

61. The place where two bones join together is called 
a joint. — Id., p. 30. 

62. There are three kinds of movable joints, viz., the 
Mnge joint, the lall-and-sochet joint, and the irregular 
or arthrodial joint, — Brand'' s Lessons on the Human 
Body, p. 9. 

63. The bones forming the joints are held together by 
strong cords or bands of gristle called ligaments (from 
ligo, I bind). — Id., p. 8. 

64. The cavity of the joint has a thin lining called a 
synovial membrane. This membrane gives out a fluid 
called synovia, or joint- water. This serves the same pur- 
pose that the oil we put in the joints of machinery serves. 
— Elementary Phys. and Hyg., p. 32. 

65. The hinge-joint is so constructed as to permit 
motion in only one direction, as that of the elbow. — 
Brand's Lessons on the Human Body, p. 9. 



AWAT03IT, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 249 

66. The ball-and-socket joint is so formed as to allow 
motion in every direction — forward, backward, and in a 
circular manner. It is composed of a ball on the end of 
one bone, and a cut or socket in another, into which the 
ball fits. The shoulder joint is of this kind. — Id. p. 9. 

67. The arthrodial or irregular joint is that kind of 
joint in which the end of one bone is received into the 
shallow groove of another, the surfaces of the ends of 
the bones being nearly plane. The wrist is a joint of 
this kind. — Id., p. 9. 

68. At first blood is poured out around the ends of 
the bone, as a result of the injury. This is gradually 
absorbed and gives place to a watery fluid, which, thick- 
ening from day to day, acquires at the end of two weeks 
the consistency of jelly. This continues to harden by 
the deposit of new bone-substance until, at the end of 
five or six weeks, the broken bone may be said to be 
united. — Hutcliison's Laws of Health, p. 18. 

69. The teeth are composed of a bone-like material, 
and are held in place by roots running deeply into the 
jaw. The exposed joortion, or ''crown," is protected 
by a thin layer of enamel, the hardest substance in the 
body, which, like flint, is capable of striking fire with 
steel. In the interior of each tooth is a cavity, blood- 
vessels and a nerve, which enters it through a minute 
opening at the point of the root. — Id., pp. 58, 59. 

70. They differ in three respects : 1st, Organic com- 
position. 3d, Time of development and replacement. 
3d, Decay when fractured. — Hitchcock'' s Anat. andPhys., 
V. 51. 

71. The teeth are appendages developed in the mu- 
cous membrane of the mouth, and not parts of the 
skeleton, as is sometimes supposed. — Cutter's Anat., 
Phys. andHyg.,p. 111. 

72. The first set of teeth, appearing in infancy, is 



250 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

called temporary, or the milk teeth. They are twenty 
in number, ten in each jaw. Between six and fourteen 
years of age they are replaced by a second set, called 
permanent teeth, numbering thirty-two, sixteen in each 
jaw. — Id., p. 105. 

73. The names and number of the permanent teeth 
in each jaw, beginning at the posterior part of the 
mouth, are : 2 wisdom, 4 molars, 4 bicuspids, 2 canine, 
4 incisors. — Hitclicoclc's Anat. and Phys., p. 54. 

74. Digestion is the process of dissolving food in the 
stomach and preparing it for circulation and nourish- 
ment. — Cuttefs Anat., Phys. and Hyg.,p. 310. 

75. The digestive organs include the mouth, teeth, 
salivary glands, palate, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, 
intestines, liver, pancreas, and spleen. — Id., p. 103. 

76. (1) To renew the worn out tissues of the body. 
(2) To keep up the warmth of the body. (3) In growth 
to supply material for new tissue. — Notes on Phys., Ed, 

77. (1) Digestion, by which the food is reduced to a 
soluble condition ; (2) ahsorption, by which, when di- 
gested, it is taken up by the blood ; (3) circulation, 
which carries the enriched blood to the various parts of 
the system ; and (4) assimilation, by which each tissue 
selects from the blood the materials necessary for its 
Bw^'^orL— Hutchison's Laws of Health, p. 57. 

78. Yjuch parotid gland is located under the skin, be- 
low and in front of the ear. The sub-maxillary glands 
are located under the back part of the lower jaw. The 
suh-lingual glands are situated in the floor of the mouth 
under the tongue. — Brand's Lessons on the Human 
Body, p. 55. 

79. These glands are composed of a mass of tubes and 
blood-vessels, held together by connective tissue. They 
are connected with the mouth by ducts, or tubes, which 
open in the cheeks and under the tongue. — Id., p. 55. 



AJ^ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 251 

80. The office of these glands is to moisten food, keep 
the mouth moist, and to convert some of the starchy 
portions of the food into a kind of sugar. — Id., p. 55. 

81. The pharynx is a short and somewhat irregular 
tubular cavity, into whicii the mouth opens behind 
serving as a portion of the canal from the mouth to the 
stomach. It also communicates with both ears, with 
the nostrils and lungs, by passages which open directly 
into it. — Hitchcock's Anat. aiid Phys., pp. 156, 157. 

82. The pharynx terminates in the oesophagus (mean- 
ing the passage for conveying the food). This is a long 
and narrow tube, made up of two muscular coats, which 
terminates in the stomach by the cardiac orifice. It 
is smaller in size than the pharynx, and contains a great 
number of minute glands which secrete an oily fluid 
when the food is passing through it. — Id., pp. 157, 158. 

83. It is covered with two layers of muscles, one of 
which runs lengthwise, and the other winds around it 
successively from top to bottom. These muscles have a 
power of contraction, or drawing themselves up like the 
earthworm, and of relaxing themselves, and being 
stretched out loosely. — brand's Lessons on the Human 
Body, p. 57. 

81. The stomach is the only large expansion of the 
digestive canal, and is a most important organ of diges- 
tion. It is a hollow, pear-shaped pouch, having a ca- 
pacity of three pints, in the adult. The stomach has 
two openings ; that by which the food enters, being 
situated near the heart, is called the cardiac, or heart, 
orifice ; the other is the j^l/^orus, or " gatekeeper," 
which guards the opening to the intestines, and, under 
ordinary circumstances, permits only such matters to 
pass it as have first been properly acted upon in the 
stomach. — Hutchison' s Laws of Health, p. Go. 

85. Its walls are made up of three coats : an outer or 



252 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

serous, a middle or muscular, and an inner or mucous. 
Hitchcock's Anat. and Phys., p. 159. 

86. The outer coat is very tough and strong, and, 
being attached to the backbone and sides of the abdo- 
men, it holds the stomach in place. — Brand's Lessons 
on the Human Body, p. 59. 

87. The muscular coat is composed of involuntary 
muscular fibres, some of which run circularly, and 
others in a longitudinal direction. These expand to 
accommodate the food as it is introduced, and contract 
as it passes out. In addition, these fibres are in con- 
tinual motion while food remains in the stomach, and 
they act in such a manner that the contents are gently 
turned round from side to side, or from one end of it to 
the other. — Hutchison^ s Phys. and Hyg., p. 92. 

88. In the inner coat the blood-vessels and nerves are 
spread out. This coat is next to the food, and has its 
surface honeycombed with millions of little pits. In the 
floor of each of these tiny pits, a number of tubes open. 
These tubes, during the process of digestion, are con- 
stantly pouring into the stomach a peculiar fluid, called 
the gastric juice. — Young FoWs Phys., p. 73. 

89. The gastric juice is a clear, almost colorless, fluid 
with a sharp acid taste. It contains a peculiar sub- 
stance called pepsin and an acid, both of which are 
necessary to the digestion of food in the stomach. — Id. , 
p. 73. 

90. The amount of gastric juice has been variously 
estimated, all the way from five to fourteen pounds daily. 
There is comparatively little in the stomach at any one 
time. There is no loss, for it is rapidly re-absorbed by 
theblood.— M, j9. 73. 

91. The intestines are divided into the Small and the 
Large intestines. The small intestine is about twenty- 
five feet in length, and divided into three parts — the 



ANAT03IY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 253 

Duodenum, the Jejunum and the ll'eum. The large 
intestine, about five feet in length, is also divided into 
three parts — the Ccecum, the Colon, and the Rectum. — 
Cuttefs Anat., Pliys.and IIyg.,p 108. 

92. The lacteals are a class of vessels communicating 
with the mucous surface of the intestines and carry a 
milky fluid containing the nutritious part of the food in 
a dissolved state. The lacteals, in their passage through 
the mesentary, form clusters called mesenteric glands, 
in which the lacteal fluid undergoes an important 
change, by which it acquires many of the properties of 
blood. — Brown's Phys. and Hyg., pp. 27, 28. 

93. The liver is the large reddish-brown organ situated 
just under the diaphragm, and on the right and upper- 
side of the abdomen. It is the largest organ in the body, 
and weighs about five pounds. The liver secretes from 
the blood a greenish liquid called the bile. It is stored 
up in a kind of pear-shaped bag attached to the liver 
itself, called the gall-bladder. — Young FoWs Phys., pp. 
74, 75. 

94. The pancreas is a long, flattened organ, weighing 
three or four ounces, about six inches in length, and 
placed transversely across the posterior wall of the abdo- 
men, behind the stomach. A duct from this organ 
opens into the duodenum. — Cutter's Afialytical Anat., 
Phys. and Hyg., p. 109. 

95. The spleen (so called because the ancients sup- 
posed it to be the seat of melancholy) is an oblong, flat- 
tened organ, situated on the left side in contact with the 
diaphragm, stomach and pancreas. It is of a dark- 
bluish color and has no outlet, and its use is not well 
determined. — Id., p. 109. 

96. The work of digestion consists of three distinct 
parts; viz., mastication and insalivation in the mouth, 
change of food into chyme in the stomach, and the 



254 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

change into chyle, and the separation of the worthless 
parts, in the duodenum. — Brand's Lessons on the Hu- 
man Body, p. 67. 

97. The chemical action of saliva is—firsf, that of a 
solvent ; it dissolves saline substances, organic acids, 
alcohols and ethers, gum sugar and the soluble albumi- 
noid and gelatinoid bodies. Second, the saliva converts 
starch granules into dextrine, then into soluble, dex- 
trose glucose, or grape sugar. A mixture of all the 
fluids of the mouth appears to form the most active 
combination for this purpose. — Cutter's Anat., Phys. 
and Hyg., p. 117. 

98. The moment the food reaches the stomach the 
gastric juice begins to flow, the muscles begin to con- 
tract, and the whole organ takes in a churning motion. 
The food is rolled over and over and thoroughly mixed 
with the gastric Juice. The gastric juice has scarcely 
any effect on the starchy matters, but acts on the albu- 
mens, such as are contained in meat, cheese, eggs, etc., 
to make a complete solution. — Young Folk's Phys., p. 
73. 

99. This process is called chymijication ; and the 
pulp into whicli the food is thus changed is call chyme. 
— Brand's Lessons on the Human Body, p. 60. 

100. To say exactly what stomach digestion is, must 
at present be impossible. We can only say that it is a 
chemico-vital process, essentially a chemical action de- 
pending upon vital power. — HitchcocFs Anat. and 
Phys., p. 174. 

101. By the joint action of these fluids, the fatty 
parts of the food are prepared for absorption. By pre- 
vious steps of digestion the fats are merely separated 
from the other components of the food ; but here, 
within the intestines, they are reduced to a state of 
minute division, or emulsion, resembling the condition 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 255 

of butter in milk, before it has been churned. — Hutchi- 
son'' s Phys. and Hyg. , p. 95. 

102. These juices aid in liquefying the chyme, and 
change it into a milky fluid called chyle. This process 
is called chylification. — Brandos Lessons on the Human 
Body, p. 64. 

103. The process by which the digested materials are 
taken into the blood is called absorption. — BlaisdeWs 
Young Folk's Phys., p. 76. 

104. This is done chiefly by two sets of vessels, — first, 
by the lacteals, or lymphatics ; second, by the blood ves- 
sels.— 7^.,^. 76. 

105. Absorption by lacteals takes place in the small 
intestines by minute vessels called villi ; these lead the 
absorbed chyle into the lacteals or lymphatic vessels, 
whenever it is conveyed through the lymphatic glands 
to the thoracic duct, and thence thrown into veins. — 
Hotze's First Lessons in Phys., p. 126. 

106. Absorption by blood-vessels takes place chiefly 
in the stomach and the intestinal canal. These ab- 
sorbed materials are conveyed to the veins. — Id., p. 129. 

107. The thoracic duct is about eighteen inches long, 
and about as large as a goose-quill. It acts as a kind of 
feeding-pipe, to empty the nutritive matter absorbed 
from the food into the blood-current. — Young Folk's 
Phys., p. 78. 

108. In all parts of the body, except the brain, spinal 
cord, eyeball and tendons, we find thin-walled vessels 
busily at work taking up, and making over anew, waste 
fluids or surplus materials derived from the blood and 
tissues generally. They carry a colorless fluid called 
lymph, very much like blood without the red corpuscles. 
The tubes in which this fluid flows are called lymphatics. 
—Id., p. 79. 

109. Group I. Nitrogenized group, proteids ; as, al- 



256 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

bumen (white of eggs), gluten (flour), fibrin (of blood), 
syntonin (lean meat), casein (cheese), etc. Group 11. 
Carbo-Hydrates, amyloids ; as, starch, sugar, gum, dex- 
trine, etc. Group III. Hydro-Carbons ; as, fats, oils. 
Group IV. Minerals; as, salts, water, oxygen. (?) — 
StoioelVs Syllabus of Lectures in Anat. and Phys., p. 14. 

110. The time required to digest food is from one to 
five and a half hours. — Brand's Lessons o?i the Human 
Body, Table, jo. 61. 

111. Digestion is most perfect when the action of the 
cutaneous vessels is energetic ; the brain moderately 
stimulated ; the blood well purified ; the muscular sys- 
tem duly exercised ; the food properly cooked and mas- 
ticated, taken at regular periods, and adapted in quality 
and quantity to the present condition of the individual. 
Cutter's Anat., PTiys. and IIyg.,p. 131. 

112. The organs of circulation are — the heart, the ar- 
teries, the capillaries, the veins. — Brand's Lessons on 
the Human Body, ;;. 79. 

113. (1) To carry digested food to all parts of the 
body. (2) To keep up the warmth of the body and pro- 
vide it with moisture. (3) To gather and convey waste 
matter to places where it may be discharged. (4) To 
carry oxygen to such tissues as require it. — Notes on 
Phys. Ed. 

114. The blood consists of a liquid portion named 
liguor sanguinis, the plasma, or liquor of the blood, 
"which holds in suspension multitudes of minute, circu- 
lar bodies, called blood-corpuscles ; these are of two 
kinds, the white, or colorless, and the red ; the latter 
are so minute that no less than one hundred millions are 
said to exist in a single drop of blood ; the red color is 
due to their accumulation, as, when in their layers they 
appear yellow. They contain only a slightly colored 
fluid, while the white corpuscles have, in addition, a 



ANATOMY, FEYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 257 

nucleus and indistinct granules. — Cutter's Anat., Phys. 
and Hyg., p. 149. 

115. The circulation of the blood was discovered by 
William Harvey, an English physician, in the year 1619. 
— American Cyclopcedia, Vol. VIII., p. 503. 

116. The total quantity of blood in the body is about 
one-thirteenth of the weight of the body. Hence a man 
of average size has from ten to twelve pounds of blood. 
— BlaisdelVs Young Folk's Phys., p. 93. 

117. The heart, or central engine of circulation, is lo- 
cated in the thorax or chest, resting by its lower surface 
on the diaphragm, and somewhat to the left of the mid- 
dle line of the body. It is of a conical form, made of 
muscular fibre, the fibres crossing themselves in at least 
three directions. The heart is a double organ, one side 
being called the arterial and the other the venous, or left 
and right hearts, since the former receives and propels 
the pure or arterial blood, while the latter circulates 
venous blood. Again, each of the two sides or hearts is 
divided into an auricle and a ventricle. Each of these 
four cavities will ordinarily contain about three fluid 
ounces, making the whole heart to contain nearly a pint. 
— Hitchcock's Anat. and Phys., pp. 201, 202. 

118. Between the auricles and ventricles are peculiar 
forms of muscular and tendinous fibres, resembling 
cords and pillars, that are termed valves, making a sort 
of curtain to allow the flow of blood from the auricles 
to the ventricles, but not in the opposite direction. 
At the point where the arteries are given off from each 
ventricle are found (in each) three crescent-shaped folds 
of semi-cartilaginous tissue called semi-lunar valves, to 
allow the motion of blood in an outward direction, but 
to prevent the return, which is called regurgitation. — 
Id., pp. 203, 204. 

119. The walls of the ventricles are thicker than 

17 



258 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

those of the auricles. This is a wise provision ; for it 
is by the powerful action of the ventricles that the 
blood is forced to the remotest regions of the body. 
The auricles need much less power, for they simply dis- 
charge their contents into the ventricles, which are near 
at hand, and their walls are not so thick. — Brand'' s Les- 
sons on the Human Body, p. 81. 

120. The arteries are the cylindrical tubes that con- 
vey the blood from the heart to every part of the body. 
— Cuttefs Pliys. and Hyg., p. 158. 

121. The arteries are composed of three coats. The 
external or cellular coat is firm and strong ; the middle 
or fibrous coat is composed of yellowish fibres. This 
coat is elastic, fragile, and thicker than the external 
coat. The internal coat is a thin, serous membrane, 
which lines the interior of the artery, and gives it the 
smooth polish which that surface presents. — Id., p. 158. 

122. The veins are the vessels which return the blood 
to the auricles of the heart after it has been circulated 
by the arteries through the various tissues of the body. 
They are thinner and more delicate in structure than 
the arteries, so that when emptied of their blood, they 
became flattened and collapsed. — Id., pp. 160, 161. 

123. These are little folds of membrane, disposed in 
such a way, that they only open to receive blood flow- 
ing toward the heart, and close against a current in 
the opposite direction. — Hutchison's Laws of Health, 
p. 84. 

124. The veins are very small at first ; but as they 
leave the capillaries, they unite, and increase in size 
while they diminish in number. At last they all become 
united in two great veins, the 'vena cava descending 
formed by the veins of the head and arms, and the vena 
cava ascending formed by those of the trunk and legs. 
These great veins open into the right auricle of the 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 259 

heart. — Brand's Lessons on the Human Body, pp. 
87, 88. 

125. The capillaries (capillus, a hair), are situated be- 
tween the ends of the arteries and the beginnings of the 
veins. Capillaries are so much a part of both arteries 
and veins that it is impossible to tell where an artery- 
ends, or where a vein begins. They are constructed 
like a fine net whose meshes are composed of tubes so 
small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. 
They are only about -^^^^ of an inch in diameter. — Id., 
p. 86. 

126. The important operations of secretion and the 
conversion of the nutrient materials of the blood into 
bone, muscle, etc., are performed in these vessels. — 
Cutter^ Anat., Pliys. and Hyg., p. 163. 

127. They receive the oxygen from the corpuscles of 
the blood, and in return give up carbonic acid gas and 
other impure and waste matter to the veins, which 
spring out of the capillaries. — Brand's Lessons on the 
Human Body, p. 87. 

128. The arrangement of the heart establishes two 
circulations instead of a single one. One of these is 
from the right side of the heart, through the lungs 
to the left side, and is known as the lesser or p)ul- 
monic circulation ; the other is formed by the cir- 
cuit of the blood all through the body from the left 
side of the heart, through the arteries and back by the 
veins, to the right side of the heart, and is called the 
greater or systemic circulation. The object of the 
smaller circulation, as already shown, is chiefly to recon- 
struct and purify the blood by aeration in the lungs ; 
that of the greater circulation is the nourishment of the 
various organs. — Dunglisoji's Scliool Pliys., p. 152. 

129. From the right auricle to the right ventricle, 
from the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery 



260 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

into the lungs, from the lungs through the pulmonary 
veins to the left auricle, from the left auricle into the 
left ventricle, from the left ventricle into the aorta and 
arteries, from the arteries into the capillaries, from the 
capillaries into the veins, from the veins back again into 
the right auricle of the heart, thus completing the cir- 
culation. — Brand's Lessons on the Human Body, pp. 
88, 89. 

130. The forces which propel the blood through the 
whole system may be thus briefly summed up : 1. Con- 
traction of the heart. 3. Elasticity of the arteries, 
3. Capillary force. 4. Muscular pressure. 5. Act of 
inspiration. 6. Arterialization of the blood. — HitcJi- 
cock's Anat. and PJiys., p. 226. 

131. The movements of the heart consist of an alter- 
nate contraction and expansion. The former is called 
the systole, and the latter the diastole. During the 
diastole the blood flows into the heart, to be expelled by 
the systole. The alternation of these movements consti- 
tutes the beating of the heart. — Steele's Fourteen Weeks 
in Phys., p. 110. 

132. The average number of heart- beats in an adult 
man is about seventy-two in a minute. Heat, exercise, 
and food increase its action ; cold, fasting, and sleep di- 
minish it. — Hutchison's Laws of Health, ^.81. 

133. In man the complete double circulation probably 
requires from 15 to 25 seconds. — Americati Cyclopcedia, 
Vol. IV., f. 610. 

134. The red corpuscles absorb oxygen in the lungs, 
and carry it for distribution to the various tissues of the 
body. The functions of the white corpuscles is not cer- 
tainly known. — Young Folks' Phys. , p. 94. 

135. The plasma, or nutritive fluid, is composed of 
water richly laden with materials derived from the food. 
— Brand's Lessons on the Human Body, p. 78. 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 261 

136. The specific gravity of blood = 1, very nearly ; its 
temperature = 100° F., nearly. — Hotze's First Lessons 
in Phys., p. 70. 

137. Eespiration may be defined as the function by 
which venous blood is converted into arterial blood. The 
change takes place in the lungs, the oxygen of the air 
being imparted to the blood and carbonic acid being given 
off. — Dunglison's School Phys., p. 128. 

138. The organs of respiration or breathing are, — the 
larynx, the trachea, and the lungs. — Brand'' s Lessons on 
the Human Body, p. 97. 

139. The objects of respiration are : (1) to provide 
fresh oxygen to be combined with the carbon of the 
blood in order to keep up the warmth of the body and 
aid in the assimilation of food ; (2) to carry off waste 
products of the body, as carbonic acid gas and watery 
vapor. — Notes on Phys. Ed. 

140. The larynx, the organ of voice, is a short quad- 
rangular, cartilaginous cavity, extending from the root 
of the tongue and the hyoid bone, to the trachea, with 
which it becomes continuous below. — Cutter s Anat., 
Phys. and Hyg., p. 183. 

141. The trachea is a vertical tube about an inch in 
diameter and four inches in length. It is continuous 
with the larynx and extends to the third dorsal vertebra, 
where it divides into two branches, called hronchi. The 
trachea is separated from the spinal column by the oesoph- 
agus. — Id., p. 184. 

142. The bronchi carry air to their respective lungs, 
and again divide, sending a branch to each lobe. These 
divisions called bronchise, are repeated until each ulti- 
mate ramification terminates in a dilation called an air 
cell— Id., pp. 184, 185. 

143. The trachea is composed of stiff parallel rings of 
gristle ensheathed in a tough membrane. The rings of 



263 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

gristle strengthen and keep it open for the passage of 
air. —Brand's Lessotis on Human Body, p. 100. 

144. These air-tubes, large and small, are lined with 
an extremely delicate, silky lining called mucous mem- 
brane. — Id., p. 101. 

145. The lungs are situated within the chest, one on 
the right side and the other on the left, with the heart 
between them. The lungs are very soft, spongy, and 
elastic, contain but little flesh, and are mainly composed 
of small tubes and air cells. The substance of the lungs 
is of a grayish rose color. They are surrounded by a 
double sack, the pleura, one layer of which is attached 
to the lungs, and the other to the walls of the chest. 
The lungs are not muscular, and therefore have no power 
to act for themselves in respiration. — Id., pp. 103, 103. 

146. The air-cell is a thin and elastic, funnel-shaped 
membrane of about ^-^ of an inch in diameter. — Hotze's 
Lessons in Phys., p. 84. 

147. It is supposed that there are not less than one 
hundred million air-cells in the lungs. The mucous 
membrane of the lungs presents an extent of surface of 
twenty-one thousand square inches — supposed to be 
greater than the entire surface of the skin of the body. 
— LougliborougK s Iland-hooh of Health, p. 149. 

148. It is a mixture of two gases — oxygen and nitro- 
gen — in the proportion of one part of the former to four 
of the latter. Oxygen is the active gas, the feeding and 
warming gas, the life-giving principle of nature. — Young 
Folk's Phys., p. 115. 

149. Respiration, or breathing, consists of two move- 
ments — inspiration and expiration. Inspiration is the 
drawing of air into the lungs. Expiration is the expel- 
ling or forcing out of the air from the lungs. — Brandos 
Lessons on Human Body, p. 104. 

150. On entering the air-cells of the lungs the air is 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYQIENE. 263 

separated from the blood, which has been sent to the 
lungs from the heart for purification, by the thin walls 
of the cells only. The oxygen of the air passes through 
the pores of the walls of the air-cells, combines with the 
impure blood, which is of a dark color, changes it to a 
brilliant red. While the air gives up its oxygen to the 
blood, it receives, in return, carbonic acid gas, watery 
vapor, and other impure waste matter with which the 
blood has become charged in its journey through the 
system ; and these are cast out from the lungs at every 
expiration. Charged anew with the life-giving oxygen, 
and, relieved of poisonous gases and worn-out particles, 
the blood flows back to the heart to be sent again on its 
mission to all parts of the system, carrying nourishment 
to them. — Id., p. 103. 

151. In an adult in a condition of repose, respiration 
takes place about eighteen times a minute. In the infant 
it is more frequent. — Id. p. 105. 

152. The organs which produce animal heat are essen- 
tially those employed in the act of breathing and in the 
circulation of the blood. — EitchcocFs Anat. and Phys., 
p. 256. 

153. The theory which now is most readily accepted 
makes the function to be a chemico-vital one or a chemi- 
cal change (oxydization) dependent upon vital energy, 
being nearly analogous to the burning of a candle or the 
combustion of wood and coal in the stove. — Id., pp. 
256, 257. 

154. As the oxygen in the inspired air enters the lungs 
and is brought in contact with the blood through the 
walls of the air-cells, the carbon of the venous blood 
unites with it, forming carbonic acid, and heat is gener- 
ated. This is precisely the same thing that takes place 
in the furnace where the air enters through the draft, 
supplying the oxygen, and the coal furnishes the carbon. 



264 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the result of the union being heat. But it is not in the 
lungs alone that heat is generated, for we have already 
seen that the blood is highly charged with oxygen as it 
passes through the arteries to the various organs of the 
body. And as it passes through the capillaries in every 
part of the system it then receives an equivalent of car- 
bon, the waste of the system producing carbonic acid, in 
which operation heat is given off. — Id., 23- 257. 

155. The temperature of the human system is 98° P., 
and this it is invariably found to be in all climates and 
seasons when the individual is in possession of perfect 
health.— /f?., p. 357. 

156. Across the middle of the larynx is a transverse 
partition, formed by the two folds of the lining mucous 
membrane, stretching from either side, but not quite 
meeting in the middle line. They thus leave in the 
middle line a chink or slit, running from the front to 
the back, called the glottis. The two edges of this slit 
are not round and flabby, but sharp and, so to speak, 
clean cut ; they are also strengthened by a quantity of 
elastic tissue, the fibres of which are disposed length- 
wise in them. These sharp, free edges of the glottis 
are the so-called vocal cords or vocal ligaments. — Hiix- 
ley and Touman's Phys. and Hyg., p. 205. 

157. When we wish to use the larynx in producing 
voice, the muscles attached to this wonderful instru- 
ment tighten the vocal cords, draw them parallel with 
each other, and very close together. The passage of a 
current of air between the parallel edges of the vocal 
cords, sufficiently strong to set them vibrating, produces 
voice. Sounds are thus produced in the same way as 
by the rapid vibrations of the "tongues^' of the accor- 
deon, or the strings of the violin. — Brand's Lessons on 
the Human Body, p. 99. 

158. When the cords are tightly stretched, and near 



AXAT02^rY, PHILOSOPHY, AXD HYGTEXH. 265 

together, they vibrate more rapidly, and send out a high 
tone; but when they are less tense, and wider apart, 
their Tibrations are less rapid, and a relatively low tone 
i£ the result. — Young Foiled PJiy.?.,p. 202. 

159. The different musical sounds produced in sing- 
ing depend upon the varying degree of tension of the 
vocal cords- The compass of the voice depends upon 
the extent to which the variations can take plac-e. The 
quality of the voice depends upon the structure of the 
larynx. The longer the cords and the larger the larynx 
the deeper the voice. — Id., pp. 202, 203. 

ICO. About the age of fourteen, the vocal organs be- 
gin to enlarge rapidly. It causes a ••' change of voice," 
as it is commonly called, and is most marked in boys. 
The voic^ of children are very much alike in both 
sexesr—Id.,p. 203. 

161. — The muscles are the fleshy or lean parts of the 
body ; and they, together with the fat, give to the body 
its general form and proportion. — Id., p. 9. 

162. They are made up of fibres, which are bound to- 
gether by a delicate tissue, interwoven like the fibres of 
a cobweb, called connective tissue. These fibres, when 
Been under the microscope, appear to be composed of 
still finer fibers, called fibrils. — Essentials of Phys. and 
Hyg., to accompany Wfiite s Physiological ManiJcin. 

1C3. The uses of the muscles are; (1) To give the 
bodv the power of motion. (2) To hold the bones in 
position. (3) To protect the skeleton. (4) To give 
the body a symmetrical form. — Notes on PTiys. Ed. 

164. All movements of the different parts of the body 
are caused by the contraction of muscles. The cells 
which compose the muscles are peculiarly elastic, and 
have the power to widen out, making each fibre of the 
muscle shorter and thicker. This power of these cella 
is the source of the contraction of the mnscl^ which 



266 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

produces all bodily movements. — Brand's Lessons on 
Human Body, p. 118. 

165. The muscles are arranged in pairs, each with its 
antagonist, so that as they contract and expand alter- 
nately, the bone to which they are attached is moved to 
and fro. — SteeW s Fourteen Weehs in PJiys., ^jp. 43, 44. 

166. Each muscle is penetrated by a nerve which con- 
nects it with the brain, or spinal marrow. This nerve 
branches out, and sends tiny threads into the fibres of 
the muscle, and in this respect each fibre is separate 
from every other. When the mind wills, to move a 
muscle, the brain sends out a mysterious agent through 
the nerves to the cells of each fibre of that muscle, and 
it contracts. — Brand's Lessons on Human Body, p. 
124. 

167. Muscles are divided into two great classes : viz., 
voluntary and involuntary. — Id., p. 120. 

168. Voluntary muscles are those that are under con- 
trol of the will. They move or cease to move when the 
mind wills it. The muscles of the fingers, limbs, trunk, 
and many others, belong to this class. — Id., pp. 120, 121. 

169. The involuntary muscles are those that act in- 
dependently, and are not under the control of the will. 
The muscles of the stomach, heart, and those that move 
in sneezing, coughing, and shivering as from a cold are 
among muscles of this kind. — Id., p. 121. 

170. The number of muscles in man is 540, being 
more than twice the number of the bones. — HitchcocTc's 
Anat. and Phys., p. 111. 

171. The single or unmated muscles are only thirteen. 
—Id., p. 111. 

172. The ends of the muscles are generally attached 
to the bone by strong, flexible, but inelastic tendons. — 
Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Phys., jo. 45. 

173. The office of the nervous system is to give the 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 267 

body intelligence, sensation, thought and the power of 
motion. — Notes on Phys. Ed. 

174. The principal organs of the nervous system are 
the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. — Id. 

175. The three principal masses which compose the 
brain are, (1) the cerebrum, or brain proper 5 (2) cere- 
bellum, or lesser brain ; (3) the medulla oblongata. — 
Young Folks' Phys., p. 144. 

176. The main functions of the cerebrum seem to be 
the manifestation of the intellectual powers and the 
will. — Hotze's First Lessons in Phys., p. 143. 

177. The functions of the cerebellum seem to consist 
in the regulation of muscular movements. — Id. , p. 143. 

178. The function of the medulla oblongata is to 
generate and control the motions of respiration and de- 
glutition. — Id., p. 143. 

179. The substance of the brain consists of two kinds 
of matter : viz., gray and white. The gray matter 
forms the outside of the brain, and the white the inner 
portion. — Brand's Lessons on Human Body, p. 134. 

180. The brain is enclosed within three distinct layers, 
called its membranes — the dura mater, the arachnoid, 
and thepia mater. — Young Folks' Phys., p. 145. 

181. Nerves spring from the brain and spinal chord, 
and extend to every part of the body. — Brand's Lessons 
on Human Body, p. 136. 

182. They are divided into two sets t those which are 
given off from the great brain, little brain, and medulla 
oblongata, being called cranial nerves ; and those from 
the spinal cord, spinal nerves. — Hitchcock's Anat. and 
Phys., p. 325. 

183. They are divided into two classes ; viz., the 
sensory nerves, and the motor nerves. The sensory nerves 
are connected with the organs of taste, smell, hearing, 
sight, and touch. The motor nerves are connected with. 



268 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

the muscles. — BrancVs Lessons on Human Body, p. 139. 

184. The functions of the skin are three fold : 1st, 
As a protecting memhrane ; 2cl, As a medium for the 
distribution of the tactile nerve-filaments ; 3d, As an 
eliminating organ. — Cutter^s Anat., PTiys. and Hyg., 
p. 286. 

185. The skin consists of two layers. The external, 
or superficial layer, destitute of blood-vessels and nerves, 
is called the Epidermis ; and an internal, or deeper layer, 
abundantly supplied witli nerves and highly vascular, 
called the Dermis, Cutis Vera (or true skin). — Id.y 
p. 274. 

186. Besides the blood-vessels, the true skin contains 
nerves, lymphatic-tubes, oil-tubes, and perspiration- 
tubes. — Brand's Lessons on Human Body, p. 161. 

187. The oil-tubes carry a kind of oil from the blood, 
and pour it over the skin, to keep it moist and pliable. 
—Id., p. 162. 

188. The lymphatics absorb substances from the sur- 
face of the skin, and carry them into the veins. — Ld., p. 
163. 

189. The uses of perspiration, or sweat, are twofold : 
1st, to free the system of a certain quantity of water ; 
and 2d, to eliminate from the body certain special pro- 
ducts of chemical changes. — Cutter's Anat., PJiys. and 
Hyg., p. 287. 

190. All sensations are produced by three distinct or- 
ganisms : — 1. An organ specially adapted to receive the 
stimulus from the outer physical agent. 2. An incom- 
ing, or sensory, nerve to carry the impression from the 
sense-organ to the brain. 3. The brain itself, some 
part of which converts tbe impression into an actual 
sensation to the mind. Young Folks' Phys., p. 170. 

191. The structure of the sense of touch consists in 
nerves, which are spread out under the epidermis, and 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 269 

within the dermis or cutis. — Holtze's First Lessons in 
Phys., p. 146. 

192. The tongue is the special organ of the sense of 
taste ; but the back part of the month also possesses 
this faculty. — Hutchison's Laivs of Health, p. 138. 

193. In this sense, as in the other senses, the nerves 
receive the impression, and carry it to the brain, where 
it is perceived, and gives rise to the sensation of taste. — 
Young Folks' Phys., p. 172. 

194. The seat of the sense of smell resides in the cavi- 
ties of. the nose, into which the nostrils open, and which 
open behind the pharynx, or the back part of the mouth. 
The walls of the nasal cavity are lined with a thick, 
velvety membrane, over which the nerves of smell are 
distributed.— M,jo;;. 172, 173. 

195. The globe of the eye, or eyeball, is composed of 
three concentric envelopes, viz., the Sclerotica, with the 
Cornea in front ; the Choroidea, with Iris in front ; and 
the Retina which is internal. These make up most of 
the eyeball which is a hollow sphere filled with three 
fluid or semi-fluid substances — the Aqueous Humor, the 
Crystalline Lens and the Vitreous Humor. — Cutter's 
Anat., Phys. and Hyg., p. 264. 

196. We know that light is reflected from objects ; 
that it enters the eye through the transparent comea, 
passes through the aqueous humor, and enters the pupil; 
that it passes through the pupil, and reaches the crystal- 
line lens, where its rays are bent from a direct course. 
It is believed, that, after the rays reach the retina, a pic- 
ture of the object is formed upon it, and that the im- 
pression is conveyed by the optic nerve to the brain, 
where the impression is understood or seen, but how, we 
do not know. — Brand's Lessons on Human Body, pp. 
153, 154. 

197. The ear, the organ of hearing, consists of three 



270 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

parts ; viz., the external ear, the middle ear, and the in- 
ternal ear. — Id., p. 157. 

198. The middle ear consists of (1) the external tube 
and (2) the drum or tympanum. These are separated 
from each other by the tympanic membrane. The 
drum contams three small bones : the hammer, the 
anvil, and the stapes. — Hotze^s First Lessons iii Phys., 
p. 165. 

199. The labyrinth or inner ear consists of the vesti- 
bule, three semi-circular canals, and the cochlea. The 
labyrinth is filled with liquids, in which are floating the 
terminal fibres and filaments of the auditory nerve. — 
Id., p. 1G,5. 

200. The air-waves beat upon the membrane of the 
drum, and cause it to vibrate just as the head of an or- 
dinary drum does when it is struck. The vibrations of 
the membrane cause the air within the drum (tym- 
panum) to vibrate, and to set the little bones to vibrat- 
ing and swinging at the same rate. All these shakes 
and vibrations produce similar ones in the watery liquid 
in the labyTinth, and these produce the same kind of an 
impression on the auditory nerve, which lines the inner 
ear. This nerve carries the sensation to the brain, 
which recognizes it, we know not how, as a sound. — 
Brandos Lessons on Human Body, pp. 159, 160. 

201. 1. Eat a proper amount of food containing ma- 
terials which enter into the formation of bone. 3. Avoid 
positions in sitting or standing which may injuriously 
affect the shape and position of bones. 3. Avoid cloth- 
ing of all kinds that will unduly compress the bones. 
4. Take a proper amount of exercise and breathe pure 
air. — Notes on Phys. Ed. 

203. 1. Care should be had regarding the quantity 
and quality of food. 3. Food should be properly masti- 
cated. 3. Care should be had regarding the tempera- 



AN-ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EYGIENE. 271 

ture of food and drink. 4. The juices of the mouth 
and stomach should not bo too much dihitcd by drink- 
ing during meals. 5. It is not good to cat food too 
highly seasoned. 6. Pure air and exercise are necessary 
to a keen appetite and good digestion. — Id. 

203. 1. Muscular exercise should not be continued 
too long, nor should it be too violent. 2. Muscles 
should have rest after exhaustive strain or long-con- 
tinued work. 3. They should have regular and fre- 
quent exercise. 4. Tliey should bo abundantly supplied 
with pure blood, which requires })ropcr food, pure air, 
and freedom from compression. — Id. 

204. 1. Breathe pure air, which requires wcll-vcnti- 
lated rooms, and freedom from stagnant water and decay- 
ing animal or vegetable matter. 2. The organs should 
not be compressed by tight clothing. 3. The pores of 
the skin should bo ke])t open. 4. Breathing should 
take place through the nose instead of the mouth. 
5. Extremes of cold and heat should bo avoided. — Id. 

205. 1. The health of the nervous system requires ex- 
ercise, good food, and pure air. 2. Want of sleep may 
impair the nervous system. 3. Useful employment is 
beneficial to the nervous system. 4. Brain work should 
be laid aside as soon as it causes a feeling of nervous ex- 
haustion. — Id. 

206. A poison is any substance, which, when applied 
externally, or taken into the stomach or the blood, works 
such a change in the animal economy as to produce dis- 
ease or death. — BlaisdelVs Young Folks' Phys., p. 
273. 

207. A stimulant is an agent which causes an increase 
of vital activity in the body or any of its parts. — Id., p. 
275. 

208. The term narcotic is applied to different sub- 
stances, derived chiefly from the vegetable kingdom, 



272 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

which have the wonderful property of quieting pain and 
causing sleep. — Hutchison's Laws of Health, p. 125. 

209. Eminent authority in all departments of science, 
and in every country, agree in classing alcohol, opium, 
chloral and tobacco as narcotic cerebral poisons ; and it 
has been demonstrated to every observer that the use of 
any of these begets a morbid appetite, that demands that 
a greater quantity of it may Sindmust be used to produce 
its former effect. — BrancTs Lessons on Human Body, 
pp. Ill, 172. 

210. There is only one source from which alcohol is 
obtained, namely, the fermentation of sugar, or of sub- 
stances containing sugar. — Id., p. 174. 

211. Alcohol is both a stimulant and a narcotic when 
taken into the body. As a stimulant, it excites the brain 
and nerves, hastens the circulation of the blood, and 
produces intoxication. As a narcotic, it blunts the sen- 
sibility of the brain and nerves, and produces sleep or 
stupor. All narcotics, when taken in sufficient quantity, 
are poisonous, and produce death. — Id., p. 177. 

212. Physiological objections to its use in even small 
quantities. Poisonous character — Tendency to produce 
morbid conditions — Prevalence of chronic diseases among 
those addicted to use of strong drinks — Increased liabil- 
ity to contagious diseases — Diminished endurance for 
prolonged labor. — StoioelVs Syllabus of Lectures in Anat. 
and Phys. , p. 24. 

213. Alcohol acts as an irritant to the stomach and 
digestive organs, producing at first loss of appetite and 
dyspepsia ; and if the habit of drinking is persevered in, 
the structure of the stomach may undergo alteration, 
becoming thickened, and perhaps inflamed. —i)2^w^?i- 
son^s School Phys., p. 317. 

214. '' Alcohol acts on the liver by producing enlarge- 
ment of that organ, and a fatty deposit, or the 'hob- 



ANAT03IY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYaiENE. 273 

nailed ' liver mentioned by English writers." — W. B. 
Carpenter, M. D. — Young Folks' Fhys., p. 90. 

215. Alcohol unduly hastens the circulation of the 
blood, and causes congestion of the blood-vessels. It 
increases the work of the heart, and thereby exhausts its 
power. It softens the muscular fibres of the heart, and 
weakens it by changing the fibres into fat. It relaxes the 
small arteries, and unfits them for their work. It affects 
the blood, making it thin or coagulating it, according 
to the amount carried into the circulation. It a©ts upon 
the blood-corpuscles, causing them to undergo modifica- 
tions of shape and size, and reducing their capacity to 
absorb oxygen and carry out carbonic acid, etc. It inter- 
feres with the burning of waste matter in the capillaries, 
and thus poisons the blood and prevents it from feeding 
the body. It congests the blood-vessels of the brain, and 
by inducing fatty degeneration, may cause apoplexy. — 
Id., pip. 211, 212. 

216. The substance of the brain is injured by alcohol, 
and its thought-producing power impaired. It collects 
in the brain and causes paralysis and death. It affects 
the shape, size, and color of the cells of the brain, and 
produces insanity. It absorbs water from the veins, and 
paralyzes their action. By its effects on the nerves, it 
interferes with and Aveakens muscular movements. — Id., 
p. 212. 

217. Alcohol diminishes the heat of the body and 
makes it sensitive to cold. It is not a protection against 
GoAdi.— Id., p. 212. 

218. Life-insurance tables show that a temperate per- 
son's chance of living at twenty is 44.2 years, at thirty 
is 36.5 years, at forty is 28.8 years. An intemperate 
person's chance of living at twenty is 15.6 years, at thirty 
is 13.8 years, at forty is 11.6 years. — Id., pp. 208, 209. 

219. Its injurious effects are due to its active principle 

18 



274 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

called nicotine, which is of itself a narcotic poison. — 
Young Folks' PJiys., p. 160. 

220. Tobacco, like alcohol, and for nearly the same 
reasons, injures the brain, deranges the entire nervous 
system, spoils the appetite for wholesome food, lowers the 
life-forces, injures the lungs and heart, and depresses the 
spirits. When indulged in by young persons, it saps the 
foundations of health, and dwarfs the body and mind. — 
Brand's Lesso?is on the Human Body, p. 224. 

221. ft assists tlie skin in the discharge of its func- 
tions, and removes dirt, odors, and poisonous materials. 
Perspiration, ordinarily a harmless fluid, if allowed to 
accumulate upon the skin, ,mingled with dirt of various 
kinds, clogs the pores, and may even undergo chemical 
changes, and become an irritant, or produce poisonous 
matter which may be absorbed into the system. — Wal- 
Tcer's Anat., Phys. and Hyg., p. 54. 

222. In eur variable climate ivoolen undergarments of 
varying thicknesses for the different seasons should be 
worn. The open texture of woolen cloth is filled with 
confined air, and its ability to retain moisture, whether 
from the skin or outside, prevents the cooling effects of 
a rapid evaporation. Sillc is the next most suitable ma- 
terial, especially for undergarments ; then cotton ; and 
lastly linen. Linen being a good conductor, and thin 
and closely woven, is too cool for winter use, or for an 
undergarment when the wearer is working hard, or is 
exposed to a changeable climate. — Id., pp. 72, 73. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 375 



QUESTIONS. 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

1. Define government. 

2. What is civil government ? 

3. What is a State ? 

4. What is law ? 

5. What are the three most common forms of civil 
government ? 

6. What is a monarchy ? 

7. How many kinds of monarchies ? Define them. 

8. Name examples of absolute monarchies. 

9. What is an aristocracy ? 

10. Does such a government exist at the present time ? 

11. Under what two forms may civilized governments 
of the present day be classed ? 

12. What is a democracy ? 

13. In what countries can such a government exist ? 

14. Where have such governments existed ? 

15. What is a republic ? 

16. What is a representative democracy ? 

17. In what government are the three forms — mon- 
archy, aristocracy, and republic — blended ? 

18. Name the thirteen original North American col- 
onies, with the dates of their settlement. 

19. What three forms of government existed in the 
colonies ? 

20. What were the Provincial governments ? 

21. What were the Proprietary governments ? 

22. What were the Charter governments ? 



276 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

23. When did tlie first Congress of the colonies meet? 

24. When did the first Continental Congress meet ? 

25. When did the second Continental Congress as- 
semble, and what important measure was passed by it ? 

26. Describe the adoption of the Articles of Confed- 
eration. 

27. How were the powers of the government exercised 
from the time of the Declaration of Independence to the 
adoption of the Articles of Confederation ? 

28. How was this exercise of power justified ? 

29. What was the great defect of the Articles of Con- 
federation ? 

30. What departments of government were unpro- 
vided for ? 

31. When did the government go into operation under 
the present constitution ? 

32. What is a constitution ? 

33. What is the Preamble or enacting clause of the 
Constitution ? 

34. Into how many departments does the Constitution 
divide the government of the United States ? 

35. What is the legislative power ? 

36. What is the executive power ? 

37. What is the judicial power ? 

38. In what are the legislative powers vested ? 

89. Why should Congress consist of two houses in- 
stead of one ? 

40. Of what is House of Representatives composed ? 

41. Why are representatives elected by the people ? 

42. What qualifications are required for a representa- 
tive ? 

43. How are representatives apportioned among the 
several States ? 

44. What constitutional limit is placed to the number 
of representatives ? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 277 

45. When vacancies occur, how are they filled ? 

46. What is the whole number of representatives 
under the apportionment of 1883 ? 

47. What is the ratio of representation under this ap- 
portionment ? 

48. How are territories represented in Congress ? 

49. What powers has the House of Representatives ? 

50. What is an impeachment ? 

51. How is the United States Senate composed ? 

52. Why is a long term of service fixed for senators ? 

53. What are the qualifications for a senator ? 

54. Can a United States officer be a member of either 
House of Congress ? 

55. How did the Constitution at first require the 
Senate to be divided ? 

56. What was the object of this classification ? 

57. Who is the presiding officer of the Senate, and when 
is he allowed to vote ? 

58. How are the other officers of the Senate chosen, 
and what is done in the absence of the Vice-Presi- 
dent ? 

59. What provision is made for the filling of vacancies 
which may occur in the Senate ? 

60. What are the powers of the Senate ? 

61. How often must Congress assemble ? 

62. What constitutes a quorum in each house ? 

63. By whom are the rules of proceeding in each 
house determined ? 

64. How is the publicity of the proceedings of Con- 
gress secured ? 

65. What is the salary of members of Congress ? 

66. Name the powers of Congress as mentioned in 
the Constitution. 

67. What are the limitations of the powers of Con- 



278 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

68. What is meant by a writ of habeas corpus 9 What 
is its purpose ? 

69. What is an ex post facto law ? 

70. In how many ways may a bill become a law ? 

71. What is a "bill?" 

72. What is the object of vesting the veto power in 
the hands of the President ? 

73. In whom is the executive power of the United 
States vested ? 

74. What constitutes the eligibility of the President of 
the United States ? 

75. Into what divisions may the work of electing a 
President and Vice-President of the United States be 
conveniently divided ? 

76. Who determines the manner of appointing elect- 
ors, and what is the number of electors ? 

77. Describe the work of the electors. 

78. How are the certificates of the Presidential elect- 
ors sent to Washington ? 

79. When are the electoral votes counted ? 

80. Describe the counting of the electoral votes. 

81. What action is taken by the House of Representa- 
tives if no person has the requisite majority ? 

83. If the House of Representatives fails to elect a 
President, who succeeds to the Presidency ? 

83. If the electors fail to elect a Vice-President, how 
is he chosen ? 

. 84. By the Presidential Succession bill of January 
18, 1886, how has Congress provided by law for a successor 
in case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability 
of both President and Vice-President ? 

85. Is there any provision in the Constitution, or by 
statute, for filling a vacancy in the office of Vice-Presi- 
dent ? 

86. What is the compensation of the President ? 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 379 

87. What is the salary of the Vice-President ? 

88. What are some of the duties of the President ? 

89. What oath of ofl&ce must the President take ? 

90. Who administers the Presidential oath ? 

91. How may the President and other oflScers be re- 
moved from office ? 

92. In what is the judicial power of the United States 
vested ? 

93. How many classes of Federal courts have been 
established ? 

94. How many judges in the Supreme Court ? 

95. How often does the Supreme Court hold its ses- 
sions ? 

96. How are the United States divided for judicial 
purposes ? 

97. How are the judges of the Supreme Court and 
of the inferior courts appointed ? 

98. What is the tenure of office of the judges ? 

99. What are the salaries of the justices of the Su- 
preme Court ? 

100. Who is the present (1887) Chief Justice ? 

101. What are the other officers of the national courts 
besides the judges ? 

102. In what does treason against the United States 
consist ? 

103. What has Congress declared to be the punish- 
ment for treason ? 

104. What power has Congress in the proposing of 
amendments to the Constitution ? 

105. When do proposed amendments become valid 
parts of the Constitution ? 

106. What power has Congress in determining which 
method of ratification shall be employed ? 

107. How many amendments have been added to the 
Constitution ? 



280 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

108. "When were the first ten amendments ratified and 
what was their nature ? 

109. What is a " Bill of Rights " ? 

110. What is the nature of the Eleventh Amendment ? 
The Twelfth ? 

111. What was the object of the Thirteenth Amend- 
ment ? When was its adoption officially announced ? 

113. When was the Fourteenth Amendment declared 
to be a part of the Constitution ? What was its object ? 

113. When was the Fifteenth Amendment ratified ? 

114. How does the Fifteenth Amendment differ from 
the Fourteenth ? 

115. Name the oflBcers which compose the President's 
cabinet. 

116. What are the salaries of cabinet ofl&cers ? 

117. What is an ambassador ? 

118. What is meant by the term " minister," as used 
in the Constitution ? 

119. What is a consul ? 

120. What is the highest salary paid to ambassadors, 
ministers and consuls ? The lowest ? 



CIVIL OOVEBNMENT. 281 



ANSWERS. 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

1. Government in a general sense, signifies direction, 
or regulation ; or it is the control which one thing has 
over another. When applied to mankind, it means the 
exercise of authority by one or more persons over others, 
in controlling or regulating their conduct. — Young's 
Civil Gov., Revised, p. 13. 

2. Civil Government is the control exercised by the 
State over its citizens. — Suplee's Hand-Booh of Civil 
Gov., p. 9. 

f 3. A State is a community of persons living within 
certain limits of territory, under a permanent organiza- 
tion, which aims to secure the prevalence of justice, and 
to promote the common good by self-imposed laws. — 
Id., p. 9. 

4. Law is the expression of the controlling will, which 
becomes a rule of action for the governed. — Id., p. 9. 

5. Monarchy, aristocracy, and republic. — Alden's Cit- 
izen's Manual, p. 10. 

6. A monarchy is a form of government in which the 
supreme control is in the hands of one person, called a 
king, emperor, etc. — Suplee's Hand-Booh of Ciiiil Gov., 
p. 10. 

7. Of monarchies there are two kinds : Absolute, in 
which the will of the sovereign is the supreme law of 
the land, and Limited, in which the laws are made 
by representatives of the people. — Maury's Manual of 
Geog., p. 17. 

8. Eussia and Turkey are absolute monarchies ; all 



282 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

the other monarchies of Europe are limited. — Id.y 
p. 17. 

9. An aristocracy is a form of government in which 
control "is exercised by a privileged order of men, dis- 
tinguished for their rank and wealth. — SupUe's Hand- 
Booh of Civil Gov., p. 11. 

10. No government properly called an aristocracy is 
known to exist at the present time. The aristocratic 
principle, however, is preserved in the British House of 
Lords. — Youtig's Civil Gov., p. 19. 

11. Civilized governments of the present day may be 
reduced to two kinds — the republican and monarchical. 
— Maury^s Manual of Geog., p. 17. 

12. A democracy is a form of government in which 
control is directly exercised by the people in one assem- 
bly. — SupUe's Hand-Booh of Civil Gov., p. 11. 

13. This kind of government can exist only in small 
territories. It would be impossible for all the citizens 
of a large community to meet in a single assembly and 
do business. — Young's Civil Gov., p. 18. 

14. In ancient Greece and Rome there were some gov- 
ernments of this kind. — Id., p. 18. 

15. A republic is that form of government in which 
the power of the state is exercised by agents chosen by 
the people. — Alden's Citizen's Manual, p. 11. 

16. A representative democracy does not differ from a 
republic. — Id., p. 11. 

17. The three forms are blended in the English gov- 
ernment. — Id., p. 11. 

18. Virginia, 1606 ; Massachusetts, 1620 ; New Hamp- 
shire, 1629 ; Maryland, 1632 ; Connecticut, 1635 ; Rhode 
Island, 1636 ; New York, 1662 ; North Carolina, 1663 ; 
South Carolina, 1663 ; New Jersey, 1664 ; Pennsylvania, 
1681 ; Delaware, 1682 ; Georgia, 1732.—Townsend's 
Analysis of Civil Government, p. 13. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 283 

19. The colonial governments may properly be di- 
vided into three classes : 1. Provincial. 2. Proprietary. 
3. Charter.— M, p. 14. 

20. The Provincial governments were those wholly 
under the control of Great Britain. — SupUe's Hand-Booh 
of Civil Gov., p. 12. 

21. The Proprietary governments were those governed 
by a proprietor, who derived not only the title to the soil, 
but also the power of government, from the sovereign. — 
Id., p. 12. 

22. The Charter governments were those under the 
control of the sovereign, but having important political 
rights secured to them by charters. — Id., p. 12. 

23. The first Colonial Congress met in New York City, 
October 7, 1765. Nine colonies were represented by 
twenty-eight delegates. — Swinton's Condensed U. 8. 
History, p. 113. 

24. A Congress, at the call of Massachusetts, assembled 
in Philadelphia, September 5, 1774, consisting of dele- 
gates from all the colonies. This is known in history as 
*' The First Continental Congress." It was the first in 
which all the colouies were represented. — Toiunsend's 
Analysis of Civil Oov., p. 18. 

25. The second Continental Congress assembled in 
Philadelphia, May 10, 1775. This Congress continued 
in session until the close of the Eevolutionary War, and 
until a definite form of government was adopted. It 
passed the Declaration of Independence, in which, for 
the first time, the colonies received the name of the 
United States of America — a title which has been con- 
tinued ever since. — Id., p. 18. 

26. To provide effectually for the future security, as 
well as the immediate safety of the American people. 
Congress deemed it necessary that there should be a 
union of the States under some general government; 



384 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

and in November, 1777, that body agreed on a plan of 
union. The articles Avere called " Articles of Confeder- 
ation and Perpetual Uuion Between the States ; " and 
were to go into effect when adopted by the legislatures 
of all the States. Some of the States were slow to agree 
to the articles ; but they were finally adopted March 1, 
1781. — Young's Civil Gov., p. 164. 

27. The Continental Congress assumed all the powers 
that were necessary to insure the safety and maintain the 
independence of the United States. — SupUe's Hand- 
Booh of Civil Gov., p. 13. 

28. The exercise of power by the Continental Con- 
gress was required by the necessities of the case, and was 
submitted to by the people. — Id., p. 14. 

29. The great defect of the Articles of Confederation 
was the want of sufficient power in the General Govern- 
ment. — Id., p. 14. 

30. No provision was made for such an officer as Presi- 
dent. There was no national Judiciary. — Townsend's 
Analysis of Civil Gov., p. 21, 

31. April 30, 1789, the President elect took the con- 
stitutional oath of office, it being administered to 
him by the Chancellor of the State of New York; 
and the government went into full operation. — Id., 
j9. 30. 

33. The principles of fundamental laws which govern 
a State or other organized body of men, and are em- 
bodied in written documents, or implied in the institu- 
tions and usages of the country or society; organic law. 
— Webster's Dictionary. 

33. We, the People of the United States, in order to 
form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure do- 
mestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, pro- 
mote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of lib- 
erty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and estab- 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 285 

lish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
j—Tow?isend' s Analysis of Civil Gov., p. 55. 

34. The Constitution divides the Government of the 
United States into three departments : the Legislative, 
Executive, and Judicial. — SupUe's Hand-Booh of Civil 
Gov. , p. 41. 

35. The Legislative power is the power which makes 
the laws. — Id.^p. 41. 

36. The Executive power is the power which carries 
the laws into effect. — Id., p. 41. 

37. The Judicial power is the power which interprets 
the laws. — Id. , p. 41. 

38. " All legislative powers herein granted shall be 
vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall 
consist of a Senate and House of Kepresentatives." — 
Co7ist., Art. I., Sec. 1. 

39. Two houses furnish greater security for wise legis- 
lation ; for if a bill passes one house without due con- 
sideration, its defects may be discovered in the other 
house. — Alden's Citizen's Manual, p. 31. 

40. " The House of Eepresentatives shall- be composed 
of members chosen every second year by the people of 
the several States." — Const., Art. I., Sec. 2, 1. 

41. Eepresentatives are elected by the people in order 
to bring one branch of the National Legislature into the 
closest relations with the people. — Suplee's Hand-Booh 
of Civil Gov., p. 43. 

43. *' No person shall be a representative who shall 
not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and been 
seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall 
not, when elected be an inhabitant of that State in 
which he shall be chosen." — Const., Art I., Sec. 2, 2. 

43. *'' Eepresentatives and direct taxes shall be appor. 
tioned among the several States which may be included 
in this Union, according to their respective numbers, 



286 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

which shall be determined by adding to the whole num- 
ber of free persons, including those bound to service for 
a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three- 
fifths of all other persons." — Const., Art. /., 8ec. 2, 3. 

44. ''The number of representatives shall not exceed 
one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have 
at least one representative." — Id. 

45. "When vacancies happen in the representation 
from any State, the executive authority thereof shall 
issue writs of election to fill such vacancies." — Id., Sec. 
2,4. 

46. The whole number of representatives under the 
apportionment of 1882 is three hundred and twenty-five. 
— SupUe's Hand-Boole of Civil Gov., p. 48. 

47. The ratio of representation under the apportion- 
ment of 1882 is one representative for every 151,912. — 
Id., p. 48. 

48. Each organized Territory is allowed one delegate, 
who may participate in the discussions of the House, 
but is not permitted to vote. But this is not a consti- 
tutional provision ; it is by act of Congress. — Town- 
send'' s Analysis of Civil Gov., p. 116. 

49. 1. To choose their Speaker and other oflBcers. 2. 
Sole power of originating impeachments. 3. Sole power 
of originating bills for raising revenue. 4. Coordinate 

'with the Senate in general legislation. 5. When the 
electors of President and Vice-President of the United 
States fail to elect a President, the House of Eepresenta- 
tives shall elect one. — Id., p. 126. 

50. An impeachment is a solemn and specific accusa- 
tion brought against a public officer, drawn out in due 
form, charging him with treason, bribery, or other 
crimes and misdemeanors. — Id., p. 126. 

51. ** The Senate of the United States shall be com- 
posed of two senators from each State, chosen by the 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 287 

Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall 
have one vote." — Const., Art. L, Sec. 3, 1. 

52. A long term is fixed for senators in order to secure 
dignity, independence, and experience, and to give 
enough time for a fair trial of measures of great impor- 
tance. — SupUe's Hand-BooJc of Civil Gov., p. 55. 

53. " No person shall be a senator who shall not have 
attained the age of thirty years and been nine years a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an inhabitant of the State for which he is 
chosen." — Const., Art. I., Sec. 3, 3. 

54. No United States oflBcer shall be a member of 
either house of Congress. — Townsend's Analysis of 
Civil Gov., p. 130. 

55. "Immediately after they shall be assembled in 
consequence of the first election, they shall be divided 
as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the 
senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- 
tion of the second year ; of the second class, at the expi- 
ration of the fourth year ; and of the third class at the 
expiration of the sixth year." — Const., Art. I., Sec. 3, 2. 

56. The Senate must always be constituted of mem- 
bers one third of whom have had at least four years of 
legislative experience, and of another third who have 
had at least two. — Townsend's Analysis of Civil Gov., 
p. 135. 

57. " The Vice-President of the United States shall 
be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless 
they be equally divided." — Const., Art. I., Sec. 3, 4. 

58. "The Senate shall choose their other ofiBcers, 
and also a president pro tempore in the absence of the 
Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of 
President of the United States." — Id., Sec. 3, 5. 

59. " If vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, 
during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the ex- 



288 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

ecutive thereof may make temporary appointments until 
the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill 
such vacancies."— /(?., Sec. 3, 2. 

60. 1. Legislative. — First : Coordinate with the 
House of Kepresentatives in general legislation. Second : 
May propose or concur with amendments to bills for 
raising revenue. 

2. Executive. — First: To ratify treaties proposed by 
the President of the United States, two-thirds of the 
senators present concurring. Second: To confirm the 
following ofiicers when nominated by the President : 

(1) Ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls. 

(2) Judges of the Supreme Court. (3) All other officers 
of the United States whose appointments are not other- 
wise provided for by the Constitution, and which shall 
be established by law. 

3. Elective. — First: Excepting their president, they 
shall choose their officers, and also a president pro tem- 
pore. Seco7id: When the electors of President and Vice- 
President of the United States fail to elect a Vice-Presi- 
dent, the Senate shall choose one. 

4. Judicial. — First : The Senate has sole power to try 
all impeachments when sitting for that purpose on oath 
or affirmation. Second: The Chief Justice shall preside 
when the President of the United States is tried. Third : 
Without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members 
present, no person shall be convicted. Fourth: May ren- 
der judgment no further than — (1) His removal from 
office, and (2) Disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States. 
— Toiunsend's Analysis of Civil Gov., pp., 141, 142. 

61. ''The Congress shall assemble at least once in 
every year, and such meetings shall be on the first 
Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint 
a different day." — Const., Art. I., Sec. 4, 2. 



CIVIL G0VEBN31ENT. 289 

62. ''A majority of each shall constitute a quorum to 
do business." — Id., Art. I., 8ec. 5, 1. 

63. " Each house may determine the rules of its pro- 
ceedings, punish its members for disorderly conduct, 
and, witli the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a mem- 
ber."— M, Art. L, Sec. 5, 2. 

64. " Each house shall keep a journal of its proceed- 
ings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting 
such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy." — 
Id., Art. I., Sec. 5, 3. 

65. An act was passed July 28, 1866, raising the pay 
of members of Congress to five thousand dollars a year, 
and mileage as heretofore [eight dollars for every 
twenty miles travel] ; the Speaker of the House, eight 
thousand dollars. — Townsend's Analysis of Civil Gov., 
p. 156. 

66. " The Congress shall have power — 

" 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and ex- 
cises to pay the debts and provide for the common de- 
fense and general welfare of the United States ; but all 
duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform through- 
out the United States. 

"2. To borrow money on the credit of the United 
States. 

"Z. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and 
among the several States, and with the Indian tribes. 

" 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and 
uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout 
the United States. 

" 5. To coin money ; to regulate the value thereof, 
and of foreign coin ; and fix the standard of weights 
and measures. 

" 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting 

the securities and current coin of the United States. 

" 7. To establish post-oflfices and post-roads. 
19 



290 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

*'8. To promote the progress of science and useful 
arts, by securing for limited times to authors and in- 
ventors the exclusive right to their respective writings 
and discoveries. 

"9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme 
Court. 

''10. To define and punish piracies and felonies 
committed on the high seas, and offenses against the 
law of nations. 

" 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and 
reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land 
and water, 

"12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropria- 
tion of money to that use shall be for a longer term 
than two years. 

** 13. To provide and maintain a navy. 

" 14. To make rules for the government and regula- 
tion of the land and naval forces. 

'' 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to exe- 
cute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and 
repel invasions. 

" 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disci- 
plining the militia, and for governing such part of 
them as may be employed in the service of the United 
States ; reserving to the States respectively the appoint- 
ment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
militia according to the discipline prescribed by Con- 
gress. 

*' 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases 
whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles 
square) as may, by cession of particular States and the 
acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, and to exercise like aiithor- 
ity over all places purchased by the consent of the Legis- 
lature of the State in which the same shall be, for the 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 291" 

erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and 
other needful buildings : And 

"18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and 
proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, 
and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the 
government of the United States, or in any department 
or oflScer thereof." — Const., Art. I., Sec. 8, 1-18." 

67. "1. The migration or importation of such per- 
sons as any of the States now existing shall think 
proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Con- 
gress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight ; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such im- 
portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

" 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall 
not be suspended, unless, when in cases of rebellion or 
invasion, the public safety may require it. 

"3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be 
passed. 

"4. No capitation or other direct tax shall belaid, 
unless in proportion to the census or enumeration 
hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

**5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
from any State. No preference shall be given, by any 
regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one 
State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to 
or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties 
in another. 

*'6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but 
in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a 
regular statement and account of the receipts and ex- 
penditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

"7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the 
United States; and no person holding any office of 
profit or trust under them shall, without the consent 



292 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

of Congress, accept of any present, emolument, ofl&ce or 
title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
foreign State." — Const., Art. L, Sec. 9., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
6, 7. 

68. It is an order, issued by a judge or court, com- 
manding the person having another in custody or in 
prison to bring the prisoner before him. If the pris- 
oner is illegally or improperly in custody, the judge 
will discharge him. It is a safeguard against illegal 
imprisonment. — Alden's Citizen's Manual, p. 56. 

69. A law making an act criminal which was not 
criminal when it was performed. — Id., p. 56. 

70. Three : First : By passing both Houses of Congress 
and receiving the approval of the President ; Second, By 
a two-thirds vote of both Houses over the veto of the 
President ; and, Third, By the neglect of the President to 
approve or sign, after having passed both houses of Con- 
gress. — Suplee^s Hand- Book of Civil Gov., p. 77. 

71. A draft of a proposed law. — Id., p. 77. 

72. To provide a check upon improper legislation. — 
Id., p. 78. 

73. " The executive power shall be vested in a Presi- 
dent of the United States of America. He shall hold 
his office during the term of four years." — Const., Art. 
II., Sec. 1, 1. 

74. ''No person except a natural-born citizen, or a 
citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption 
of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of 
President ; neither shall any person be eligible to the 
office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty- 
five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the 
United States."— 7f?., Art. II, Sec. 1, 5. 

75. First : the number of electors and the manner of 
their appointment. Second : the work of the electors. 
T?iird : the counting of the electoral votes. Fourth : the 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 293 

proceedings in the House of Eepresentatiyes in case the 
electors fail to elect. — Ed. 

76. First : Each State shall appoint electors of Presi- 
dent and Vice-President in such manner as the Legis- 
lature thereof may direct. Second : The number of 
electors shall equal the number of senators and repre- 
sentatives to which the State may be entitled in Con- 
gress. — Townsend's Analysis of Civil Gov., p. 263. 

77. First : They shall meet in their respective States. 
Second : They shall vote by ballot for President and Vice- 
President of the United States, at least one of whom 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them- 
selves. Third: They shall name in their ballots (1) the 
person voted for as President ; and (2) the person voted 
for as Vice-President. Fourth : They shall make out dis- 
tinct lists of all persons voted for (1) as President ; (2) 
as Vice-President, and the number of votes for each. 
Fifth : The electors shall sign and certify the lists. 
Sixth : They shall transmit the lists sealed to the seat 
of government of the United States. Seventh : The lists 
shall be directed to the President of tbe Senate. — Id., 
pp. 264, 265. 

78. One of the certificates is sent by special messenger 
to the President of the Senate ; a second one is forwarded 
to the same person by mail ; and a third is delivered to 
the judge of the district in which the electors assemble. 
— Suplee's Hand-Booh of Civil Gov., p. 121. 

79. The proceedings take place in the hall of the 
House of Representatives on the second Wednesday in 
February. — Id., p. 121. 

80. 1st. The President of the Senate shall open all the 
certificates in the presence of both houses of Congress. 
2d. The voces shall be counted. 3d. The person having 
the greatest number of votes for President shall be [de- 
clared elected] President, if such number be a majority 



294 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

of the whole number of electors appointed, — TownsentTs 
Analysis of Civil Gov., p. 266. 

81. 1st. If no person have such majority, then the 
House of Eepresentatives shall choose immediately the 
President. 2d. He shall be chosen from the persons 
having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the 
list of persons voted for as President. 3d, The election, 
in such cases, shall be by ballot. 4th. The vote shall be 
taken by States. 5th. The representation from each 
State shall have one vote. 6th, A quorum for this pur- 
pose shall consist of a member or members from two- 
thirds of the States. 7th. A majority of all the States 
shall be necessary to a choice. — Id., p. 267. 

82. The newly - elected Vice - President. — SupUe's 
Hand-Booh of Civil Gov., p. 121. 

83. From the two highest numbers on the list, the 
Senate shall choose the Vice-President. — Amendments to 
the Const., Art. XIL, Sec. 2. 

84. By this bill, which has become a law, if the Presi- 
dent dies and there is no Vice-President, the office of 
President is to be filled by a member of the President's 
Cabinet — the Secretary of State, if that member is liv- 
ing ; if not living, then the first who may be living of 
the other Cabinet officers in a fixed order. — Scuddefs 
Hist, of U. S., V. 422. 

85. No provision is made in the Constitution, or by 
law, for filling a vacancy in the office of Vice-President. 
—Id., p. 189. 

86. From the commencement of Washington's first 
term, 1789, to that of Grant's second term, March 4, 
1873, the salary was twenty-five thousand dollars a year. 
Since that time it has been fifty thousand dollars. But 
he has the White House, which is the executive mansion, 
rent free ; the house is also furnished for him and taken 
care of, the grounds cultivated, his fuel and light pro- 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 395 

vided, and many other things, at the expense of the pub- 
lic treasury. — Totvnsend's Analysis of Civil Gov. , p. 272. 

87. The Vice-President receives $8,000.— jVor^Aam'5 
Civil Gov., p, 95. 

88. 1. He is Commander-in-Chief of the Army and 
Navy of the United States. 

2. And the militia of the several States when called 
into the actual service of the United States. 

3. He has power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
all offenses against the United States, except in cases of 
impeachment. 

4. He has power to make treaties when two-thirds of 
the Senate present concur. 

5. He nominates and, by and with the consent of the 
Senate of the United States, appoints ambassadors, 
public ministers, consuls, judges of the United States 
Courts, and all other United States officers not other- 
wise provided for. 

6. He may fill vacancies that happen during the recess 
of the Senate, by granting commissions that expire at 
the close of the next session. 

7. He must from time to time give to Congress infor- 
mation in regard to the condition of affairs in the 
United States, and recommend such measures as he 
deems expedient. For further duties, see Constitution 
of the United States, Art. II.— Id., pp. 93, 94. 

89. " Before he enters on the execution of his office, 
he shall take the following oath or affirmation : ' I do 
solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of President of the United States ; and will, to 
the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the 
Constitution of the United States.'" — Const., Art. II., 
Sec. 1, 8, 9. 

90. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. — Su- 
plee's Hand-Book of Civil Gov., p. 127. 



296 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

91. "The President, Vice-President, and all civil 
officers of the United States shall be removed from office 
on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, 
or other high crimes or misdemeanors." — Const., Art. 
II., Sec. 5., 1. 

92. " The judicial power of the United States shall 
be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior 
courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and 
establish." — Const, Art. III., Sec. 1., 1. 

93. There are four classes of Federal courts : 

1st. The Supreme Court of the United States, estab- 
lished by the Constitution, but organized by Congress. 

2d. The circuit courts of the United States, estab- 
lished and organized by Congress. 

3d. The district courts of the United States, estab- 
lished and organized by Congress. 

4th. The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, 
also established and organized by Congress. — Townsend's 
Anal, of Civil Gov., p. 287. 

94. The judges of the Supreme Court at present are 
one chief justice and eight associate justices, any six of 
whom constitute a quorum. — Id., p. 285. 

95. This court holds one term a year in the city of 
Washington, beginning on the first Monday of Decem- 
ber.— M,jo. 285. 

96. The United States are divided, for judicial pur- 
poses, into nine circuits, and these circuits into districts. 
Each judge of the Supreme Court is allotted to a circuit, 
and is required to attend at least one term of the circuit 
allotted to him once in every two years. A local circuit 
judge is also appointed for every circuit. — Id., p. 285. 

97. By the President of the United States, by and 
with the consent of the Senate. — Id., p. 287. 

98. ''The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior 
courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior; 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 397 

and shall at stated times receiye for their services a com- 
pensation, which shall not be diminished during their 
continuance in oflBce." — Const., Art. III., Sec. 1., 1. 

99. The salary of the Chief Justice is $10,500 ; of each 
justice $10,000. — Tribune Almanac and Political Reg- 
ister, 1887, p. 34. 

100. Morrison R. Waite of Ohio, appointed in 1874. — 
Id., p. 34. 

101. The attorney-general, the district attorneys, the 
marshals, and the clerks. — Alden's Citizen's Manual, p. 
76. 

102. ''Treason against the United States shall con- 
sist in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
enemies, giving them aid and comfort." — Const., Art. 
Ill, Sec. 3., 1. 

103. Death by hanging. — Suplee's Hand-Booh of 
Civil Gov., p. 143. 

104. Congress shall propose amendments to the 
Constitution whenever two-thirds of both houses shall 
deem it necessary ; or on aiDplication of the legislatures 
of two-thirds of the several States, Congress shall call 
a convention for proposing amendments. — Townsend's 
Analysis of Civil Gov., p. 202. 

105. First: When ratified by the conventions of 
three-fourths of the several States ; or. Second : By the 
legislatures of three-fourths thereof. — Id., p. 236. 

106. Congress has the power of directing whether 
the proposed amendments to the Constitution shall be 
ratified by State conventions or by State legislatures. — 
Id., p. 203. 

107. Thus far, fifteen articles of amendment have 
been added to the Constitution. These have all been 
proposed by Congress, and have been ratified by State 
legislatures. — Fd. 

108. The first ten amendments were ratified Decern- 



298 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

ber 15, 1791. They constitute a 'Bill of Eights.'— 
SupUe's Hand-Booh of Civil Gov., p. 158. 

109. A statement of rights deemed most important 
to the liberty of the people." — Id., p. 158. 

110. Article XI. is an amendment limiting in a cer- 
tain case the jurisdiction of the Judiciary. Article 
XII., an amendment in regard to the mode of electing 
President and Vice-President. — Id., p. 169. 

111. The abolition of slavery, December 18, 1865. 
—Ed. 

112. July 21, 1868. To make sure the citizenship 
of those who had been recently freed from slavery. — 
SupUe's Hand-Booh of Civil Gov., p. 171. 

113. March 30, 1870.— Jd,jo. 175. 

114. The Fourteenth Amendment declared the col- 
ored race to be citizens, and in this way gave them civil 
rights ; while the Fifteenth secures them suffrage, and 
thus bestows upon them political rights. — Id., p. 176. 

115. The Secretary of State, the Secretary of the 
Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the 
Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, the Postmaster- 
General, and the Attorney-General. — Northam's Civil 
Government, p. 96. 

116. Each member receives eight thousand dollars a 
year. — Id., p., 100. 

117. An ambassador is a minister of the highest rank, 
employed by the government to represent it and to 
manage its interests at the court or seat of government 
of some other power. — Totvtisend's Analysis of Civil 
Gov., p. 277. 

118. The word "minister," as used in the Constitu- 
tion, has nearly the same signiiScation as "ambassa- 
dor," especially minister plenipotentiary. — Id., p. 277. 

119. A consul is a person commissioned to reside in a 
foreign country, as an agent or representative of a gov- 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 299 

eminent, to protect tlie rights, commerce, merchants, 
and seamen of the State, and to aid in any commercial, 
and sometimes in diplomatic, transactions with such 
foreign country. — Id., p. 277. 

120. The ministers to London, Paris, Berlin, and St. 
Petersburg receive $17,500 a year each. The salaries 
of ministers to other countries vary according to the 
importance of the country, or to the amount of labor 
required, the lowest being 12,000. — Northam's Civil 
Government, pp. 100, 101. 



300 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS. 
BOOK-KEEPING. 

1. What is Book-Keeping ? 

2. ^ What is a business transaction ? 

3. How many parties to a business transaction ? 

4. What is an account ? 

5. Define debtor and creditor. 

6. What are debits and credits ? 

7. How many methods of Book-Keeping are there ? 

8. What is the distinction between the' two methods ? 

9. What books are necessary in single entry ? 

10. What does the day-book contain ? 

11. What is a cash-book ? 

12. What is the first entry in the cash-book ? 

13. Describe the use of the ledger in single entry. 

14. How may accounts be divided ? 

15. What does every ledger account show ? 

16. What other books may be used in single entry ? 

17. What does the invoice-book contain ? 

18. What is the use of a sales-book ? 

19. What is the object of keeping a sales-book ? 

20. What does the bill-book contain ? 

21. What use is made of the shipment-book ? 

23. Give the meaning of the following characters and 
abbreviations: @, Vc? Dr., Cr., Mdse., Bal., Do. or 
Ditto. 

23. What is meant by the term balance ? 

24. What is an invoice 9 

25. What is meant by merchandise ? 



BOOK-KEEPING. 301 

26. What is meant by "closing an account" ? 

27. What is the object of closing accounts ? 

28. Rule paper in proper form for day-book, cash- 
book, and ledger, single entry. Make proper entries of 
the following items, and balance cash-book and ledger : 

Orange, N, J., September 1, 1887. — Invested cash, 
$2,500. Paid for stationery and postage, 18. Bought 
of Roberts, Rhodes & Co., New York, on account, Mdse. 
per invoice, $4,000. Received cash for sales this day, 
$115.25. 

Sept. 5. — Sold R. B. Finney, on account, 10 yards 
vesting, @ 15 ; trimmings, etc., $10. Paid for cleaning 
store, $2.50. 

Sept. 7. — Sold James W. Lusk, on account, one yard 
black satin, $2 ; trimmings for vest, $1.50. Received 
cash for sales this day, $88. 75. 

Sept. 12.— Sold S. S. Packard, 10 yards French broad- 
cloth, @ $4 ; 50 yards globe drills, @ 13 cents ; 20 yards 
paper cambrics, @ 12 cents ; 15 yards cotton damask, @ 
25 cents ; 30 yards cottonades, @ 33 cents ; 6 pairs kid 
gloves, @ 75 cents. Received cash on account, $50. 

Sept. 16.— Paid cash for coal, $10.— S. S. Packard 
paid cash on account, $7.50. 

Sept. 20. — Sold R. B. Finney, on account, 10 yards 
black doeskin, @ $1.63 ; 25 yards brown sheetings, @ 
12 cents ; 20 yards check gingham, @ 20 cents. Paid 
cash for stationery, $1.50. 

Sept. 24. — Paid Roberts, Rhodes & Co., on account, 
$2,000. — Sold S. S. Packard, on account, 15 yards duck 
drilling, @ 20 cents ; 10 yards brown do., @ 30 cents ; 
6 pairs pearl spun hose, @ 75 cents. 

Sept. 26. — Sold R. B. Finney, on account, 6 pairs 
gents' hose, @, 25 cents ; 1 pair suspenders, $1 ; 1 pair 
kid gloves, 75 cents. Paid cash for rent, $50. 

Sept. 28. — Received cash, on account, of R. B. Finney, 



302 TJIE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

$35. Sold James W. Lu8k, on account, 18 yards mous. 
delaine, ((O 25 cents ; 14 yards figured silk, @ $1,50 ; 
trimmings for dress, $10. 

Sept. 30. — Received of R. B. Finney, cash to balance 
account $ . 

2!). What docs the difference between the debtor and 
creditor sides of the cash-book always show ? 

30. Can the credit side of the cash account ever ex- 
ceed the debit side ? Wliy ? 

31. What docs the balance of a personal account 
show ? 

32. What are some of the differences between single 
and double entry, and what arc the advantages of the 
latter ? 

33. What are the main books used in double entry ? 

34. Wliat does the day-book contain in double entry ? 

35. Wliat should be its characteristics ? 

36. What is the office of the journal ? 

37. What is the use of the ledger in double entry ? 

38. 'W\\Ai \s, postiyig ? 

39. Rule paper, and arrange the following items so as 
to show the use of the day-book, journal, and ledger in 
double entry : 

New York, Sept. 1, 1887. — Bought of James Monroe, 
on account, 500 baiTcls of flour (a $10. 

Sept. 2. — Sold Andrew Jackson, for cash, 100 barrels 
of flour 0') $10.50. 

40. What is a " balance sheet ?" 

41. What is meant by a partnership business ? 

42. What are assets ? 

43. What arc liabilities ? 

44. Why is net capital a liability ? 

45. What is a bills-receivable account ? A bills-pay- 
able account ? 

4G. When an account has been incorrectly journal- 



BOOK-KEEPING. 303 

ized and posted in the ledger, how may the error be 
corrected ? 

47. When will a merchandise account indicate a loss? 

48. What is an inventory ? 

49. What is an account sales ? 

50. What is an account current ? 

51. What is a clearing house ? 

52. What are days of grace ? 

53. What is a manifest ? 

54. Define price current. 

55. What is a promissory note ? 

56. What is a negotiable note ? 

57. What is meant by indorsing a note ? 

58. What is the difference between a joint note and 
Q, joint and several note ? 

59. Write an interest-bearing joint and several note, 
payable to order. 

60. What is a draft ? 

61. Who are the parties to a draft ? 

62. Write a draft in proper form. 

63. What is meant by the acceptance of a bill or 
draft ? 

64. What is a protest ? 

65. What is a notary public ? 

66. What is a bill? 

67. Make out a bill for merchandise in proper form 
and receipt it. 

68. What is a receipt ? 

69. Write a receipt acknowledging the payment of 
money on a contract. 



304 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWEBS. 
BOOK-KEEPING. 

1. Book-Keeping is the science of accounts, and the art 
of recording business transactions. — Meservey's Book- 
Keeping, p. 9. 

2. A business transaction is an exchange of values. — 
Id, p. 9. 

3. At least two, a debtor and a creditor. — Id., p. 9. 

4. An account is the record of one or several business 
transactions, arranged under some title, so as to show 
the proper debits and credits. — Id., p. 9. 

5. The debtor is the person who receives value. The 
creditor is the person from whom value is received.— /d, 
p. 9. 

6. Debits are entries against debtors ; credits are 
entries in favor of creditors. — Id., p. 9. 

7. Two — single entry and double entry. — Id., p. 9. 

8. In single entry, an account is kept with only one 
party to the transaction, either the debtor or creditor ; 
in double entry, an account is kept with both parties. — 
Id., p. 9. 

9. In single entry only three books are necessary — 
cash-book, day-book, and ledger. — Home Library of 
Useful Koioivledge, p. 168. 

10. The day-book contains a history of each transac- 
tion as it occurs : 1st, the date ; 2d, the items bought or 
sold, with the price of each ; 3d, the nature of the pay- 
ment ; 4th, the place of purchase or sale ; 5th, of whom 
bought, or to whom sold, etc. — Seymour'' s New Method 
in Doulle-Entry Booh- Keeping, p. 2. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 305 

11. A book in which is kept an account of money re- 
ceived and money paid out. — 3Ieservey's Booh- Keeping, 
p. 44. 

12. The cash-book begins with the original sum paid 
in upon the debit side, and credited to the person who 
pays it in ; that is, the proprietor. — Hutchison and 
Parker's Booh-Keeping, p. 49. 

13. The ledger is the final summary of all the account- 
books. Their details are gathered into it in condensed 
form, and from it, taken as a whole, is derived the 
statement of financial standing. Each account in the 
ledger should occupy a sejiarate and sufficient space by 
itself. Original entries should be made in the day-books 
and cash-books in chronological order as they occur, and 
posted into the ledger in the same order. The ledger 
should refer to the original book by means of a page 
number against the item, and the original entry should 
also refer to the ledger by the same means. — Id., p. 49. 

14. Accounts may be divided into two classes, one of 
Avhich is used to designate the resources and liabilities, 
and the other the gains and losses. — Bryant and Strut- 
ton's Com. ScJiool Book-Keeping, p. 105. 

15. It shows one of the four following results, viz. : a 
resource, a liability, a gain, or a loss. — Id., p. 103. 

16. Invoice-book, sales-book, bill-book, shipment- 
book. — Harsh'' s Course of Single Entry p. 9. 

17. This book contains a minute description of all the 
merchandise with which we are concerned. Copies are 
made in this book from the bills of goods purchased, or 
received into our possession to be sold for other persons. 
The amounts of each page are added and carried forward 
to the next page ; consequently the whole cost of the 
merchandise is at the end of the invoice-book. — Id., p. 10. 

18. In extensive business the full particulars of every 
sale are first entered in this book and the amount after- 



306 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

wards transferred to the day-book. — Duff's BooTc-Keep- 
ing, p. 62. 

19. The purpose of keeping this book is to avoid 
entering the particulars of long inyoices upon the day- 
book.— M, p. 62. 

20. A bill-book is a book in which a record is kept of 
notes and bills receivable and payable, stating when re- 
ceived or issued, when due, when paid or otherwise dis- 
posed of. — Meservey's Booh-Keeping, p. 86. 

21. This book shows the more important matters 
relating to all shipments which are made to be sold for 
ourselves. It is ruled in columns with these headings : 
Number, Date, Consigned to. Cost, Sales. — MarsKs 
Course of Single Entry, p. 10. 

22. @ signifies at; %> account; Dr., debtor; Or., 
creditor; Mdse., merchandise; Bal., balance; Do. or 
Ditto, the same. — Tlie National Accountant, p. 314. 

23. Balayice is the difference between the two sides of 
an account ; the account in the ledger showing the assets 
and liabilities of the business ; to close an account by 
making the two sides equal. — Id., p. 315. 

24. An invoice is an account in detail of goods bought 
or sold, as distinguished from an account of goods on 
hand, which is called an inventory. — Id., p. 318. 

25. By merchandise is meant the objects of commerce ; 
goods ; wares ; anything bought and sold. — Id., p. 319. 

26. To close an account is to cause its debtor and 
creditor sides to equal in amount. — Marsh'' s Course of 
Single Entry, p. 38. 

27. The object of closing the accounts is to prevent 
them becoming very long or large in amount ; and 
where there is a balance, to separate it from the rest of 
the account, so that when the account is closed and the 
balance brought down, the account may begin anew 
with only one sum. — Id., p. 39. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



307 



DAY-BOOK. 

Orange, N. J"., Sept. 1, 1887. 



(1) 



(2) 



(3) 



(4) 



(4) 



(4) 



(2) 



RoBEKTS, Rhodes & Co., 
By Mdse., per Invoice, 



Cr. 



R. B. FiNNET, 

To 10 yds. Vesting, @ $5.00, 
Trimmings, etc., 



Dr. 

$50.00 
10.00 



James W. Lusk, 
To 1 yd. Black Satin, 
Trimmings for Vest, 



Dr. 

$2.00 
1.50 



■12- 



S. S. Packard, Dr. 
To 10 yds. French Broadcloth, @ $4.00, $40.00 

50 " Globe Drills, " 13^, 6.50 

20 " Paper Cambrics, " 12^. 2.40 

15 " Cotton Damask, " 25^. 3.75 

30 " Cottonades, « 33^. 9.90 

6 pairs Kid Gloves, " 750. 4.50 



By Cash, 



-Cr. 



■16- 



S. S. Packard, 
By Cash on % 



Cr. 



20- 



R. B. Finney, Dr. 

To 10 yds. Black Doeskin, @ $1.63, $16.30 

25 " Brown Sheeting, " 12^. 3.00 

20 " Check Gingham, " 20^. 4.00 



4000 



60 



67 
50 



23 



308 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



DAY-BOOK.— (Continued). 



(1) 



(4) 



24- 

RoBERTs. Rhodes & Co., 
To Cash on Vi 



S. S. Packaed, 
To 15 yds. Duck Drilling, @ 20(^. 
10 " Brown " " 30(Z!. 

6 prs. Pearl Spun Hose," 75^. 



■26- 



(2) 



(2) 



(3) 



(2) 



-28- 



R. B. Finney, 
By Cash on »/« 



James W. Lusk, 
To 13 yds. Mous. Delaine, 
14 " Figured Silk, 
Trimmings for Dress, 



Dr. 



Dr 

$3.00 
3.00 
4.50 



R. B. Finney, Br. 

To 6 pairs Gent's Hose, @ 25^. $1.50 

1 pair Suspenders, 1.00 

1 " Kid Gloves. .75 



Cr. 



2,000 



25^. $3.25 

.50 21.00 

10.00 



•80- 



R. B. Finney, 
By Cash in full of "/, 



Cr. 



10 



50 



25 



25 



34 



61 



25 



55 



BOOK-KEEPING, 



309 



Dr. 



LEDGER. 
1 

Roherts, Rhodes & Co. 



Cr. 



1887. 
Sept. 



To Cash, 
" Balance, 



1 


2000 
2000 

4000 




1887. 
Sept. 


1 








Oct. 


1 



By Mdse., 



By Balance, 



4000 



4000 



2000 



Dr. 



R. B. Fiimey. 



Cr. 



1887. 

Sept. 


5 

20 
26 


To Mdse., 

i< <4 


1 
1 

2 


60 

23 

3 


30 
25 


1887. 
Sept. 


28 
30 


By Cash, 


2 
2 


25 
61 


55 










86 


55 










86 


55 




— 




= 




= 








= 











Dr. 



3 

James W. LusTe. 



Cr. 



1887. 
Sept. 



Oct. 



To Mdse., 
<< << 


1 
2 


3 

34 


50 
25 


1887. 
Sept. 


30 






37 


75 






To Balance, 




37 


75 







By Balance, 



37 



37 



Dr. 



8. 8. Packard. 



Cr. 



1887. 
Sept. 



Oct. 



To Mdse., 

<< <( 



To Balance, 



1 
1 


67 

10 

77 
20 


05 
50 

55 

05 


1887. 
Sept. 


12 
16 
30 



By Cash, 
" Balance, 



50 

7 
20 

77 



50 
05 

55 



310 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

CASH-BOOK. 







Gash. 


Dt 




Cr. 




1887. 














Sept. 


1 


Amount on hand. 

Paid for stationery and postage, 
Received for petty sales. 


2500 
115 


25 


8 






5 Paid for cleaning store, 






2 


50 




7| Received for petty sales, 


88 


75 








12 Received of S. S. Packard, on «/, 


bO 










16 Paid for coal, 






10 






Received of S. S. Packard, 


7 


50 








20 


Paid for stationery, 






1 


50 




24 


Paid Roberts, Rhodes & Co. on "/«, 






2000 






26 


Paid rent. 






50 






28 


Received of R. B. Finney, on V. 


25 










30 


Received of R. B. Finney, in full of «/« 
Balance on hand, 


61 


55 


776 


05 








2848 
776 


05 
05 


2848 


05 


Oct. 


1 


Balance on hand. 





Adapted from Bryant and Stratton's Common School Book-Keep- 
ing, Set II., Single Entry. 

29. The balance, if any, must always show the amount 
of money on hand. — The National Accountant, p. 50. 

30. As nobody can pay away more money than he re- 
ceives, the credit side of this account can never exceed 
the debit, except by error. When the money is all paid 
away the account must be both sides even. — Duff^s Boole- 
Keeping, p. 9. 

31. The balance of a personal account is always a debt 
due either to or by us, and therefore belongs to our as- 
sets or our liabilities ; if a Dr. balance, it is due to us, 
and constitutes a part of our assets ; but if a Cr. balance, 
it is due by us, and constitutes a part of our liabilities. — 
The National Accountant, p. 51. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 311 

32. While the former possesses the means of showing 
the condition of business, the latter not only affords a 
proof of its own correctness, but, in addition to showing 
the condition of business, gives, with mathematical ex- 
actness, WiQ particular channels through which gains and 
losses come. The real difference between them hinges 
on this latter qualification, and to the fact that in double 
entry all the results, including resources, liabilities, 
gains and losses, are shown in the ledger ; while, in 
single entry, the partial results are gathered from vari- 
ous auxiliary books, including ledger, cash-book, bill- 
book, etc. — Bryant and Stratton^s Com. School BooTc- 
Keeping, p. 99. 

33. The three main books used in double entry are the 
day-book, journal and ledger. The day-book and jour- 
nal are sometimes combined in one. — Id., p. 100. 

34. The day-book is the original book of entry, and 
contains a consecutive history of the transactions in the 
order and date of their occurrence. — Id., p. 100. 

35. It should be plain, concise and unequivocal in its 
statements, neither confusing the mind by redundancy 
of language, nor leaving room for doubt from lack of full 
explanation. — Id., p. 100. 

36. The journal, when used separately, is the inter- 
mediate book between the day-book and the ledger. Its 
ofiBce is to decide upon the proper debits and credits in- 
volved in each transaction, preparatory to their going 
upon the ledger. The process of thus classifying the 
transactions is caWedi journalizing. — Id., p. 101. 

37. The ledger is the book of results — the final book 
of entry. Here, under appropriate heads, called accounts, 
are arranged all the facts necessary for a full and satis- 
factory statement of the business. — Id., p. 101. 

38. The process of transferring to the ledger is called 
posting. — Id,, p. 101. 



312 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



39. 



1. DAY-BOOK. 

New York, September 1, 1887. 



/ 
/ 



Bought of James Monroe on account, 
500 bbls. Flour, @ $10.00 



Sold Andrew Jackson, for cash, 

100 bbls. Flour, @ $10.50 



5000 



1050 



2. JOURNAL. 

New York, September 1, 1887. 



Dr. 



Cr. 



Merchandise, Dr., 

To James Monroe. 



Cash, Dr., 

To Merchandise. 



5000 



1050 



5000 



1050 



Dr. 



3. LEDGER. 
1. 

Merchandise. 



Cr. 



1887 
Sept. 



To J. Monroe, 


1 


5000 




1887 
Sept. 


2 



By Cash, 



1050 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



313 



Dr. 



2. 

James Monroe, 



Cr. 









1887 
Sept. 


1 



By Mdse., 



5000 



Dr. 



3. 

Cash. 



Cr. 



1887 
Sept. 



To Mdse., 



1 


1050 









—Id., pp. 101, 102. 

40. In commercial usage a ''Balance Sheet" signifies 
the systematic arrangement of facts, for the purpose of 
exhibiting at a view the condition of business. — Id., p. 
147. 

41. When two or more persons unite their property 
and interest in the prosecution of a certain kind of busi- 
ness, to be carried on under a firm name, on joint ac- 
count and risk, such business is called a partnership 
business. — Meservey^s Booh- Keeping, p. 54. 

42. All kinds of property owned by the proprietor or 
proprietors, such as real estate, merchandise, stocks, 
bonds, notes and personal accounts. — Id., p. 65. 

43. All debts due others on notes or accounts, and 
the net capital. — Id,, p. 65. 



314 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

44. Because the business owes tlie net capital to the 
proprietors. — Id., p. 66. 

45. A bills-receivable account is an account of notes 
and bills due the firm. A bills-payable account is an ac- 
count of notes and bills issued to other parties by the 
firm.— ^^. 

46. It may be corrected by entering an equal amount 
on the opposite side, as "By error" or " To error," as 
the case may be. — Id. 

47. When the Dr. side of the account is greater than 
the Or. side. — Id. 

48. An inventory is a statement or list of property. — 
EllsworWs Steps of Booh-Eeeping, p. 57. 

49. An account sales is a statement of goods sold for 
another, showing the quantity, price, and total, with 
such charges as are deducted, leaving the net proceeds 
due to the owner. — Id., p. 59. 

50. An account current is a running or unsettled ac- 
count ; a statement in detail of all the transactions be- 
tween one person and another, in the form of debtor and 
creditor. Sometimes it is used to show only the Dr. 
side of the account, each party rendering to the other 
an account of his debits only. In this case the debit 
of the one is the credit of the other. — National Account- 
ant, p. 315. 

51. A clearing house is a place where the balances 
between banks or business houses are adjusted and set- 
tled.— /^.,J9. 316. 

52. Days of G-race is the time allowed by law after the 
maturity of a bill before it must be paid, or the num- 
ber of days intervening between the nominal and legal 
maturity of a bill. — Id., p. 317. 

53. A manifest is an exhibit of a vessel's cargo, signed 
by the master, containing a description of the packages 
aboard, with the marks and numbers thereon, together 



BOOK-KEEPING. 315 

with the name of the consignor, the place where shipped, 
their destination and the name of the consignee. — Id., p. 
319. 

54. Price current is a list of articles in the market 
with their prices annexed. — Id., p. 319. 

55. A promissory note is a written promise to pay, 
absolutely and unconditionally, to a certain person, or to 
his order, a definite sum of money, at or before a speci- 
fied time. — Id., p. 319. 

56. A negotiable note is one which may be bought 
and sold, or negotiated. It is made payable to the leaver, 
or to the order of the payee. — Robinson's Higher Arith., 
p. 327. 

57. Indorsing a note by a payee or holder is the act 
of writing his name on its back. An indorsement makes 
the indorser liable for the payment of the note, if the 
maker fails to pay it when due. — Id., p. 327. 

58. A joint note is a note signed by two or more par- 
ties who jointly promise to pay. Each is liable for the 
whole note, but they must all be sued together. A joint 
and several note is a note signed by two or more parties, 
who jointly and severally promise to pay. Each is then 
liable to the whole amount, and may be sued separately. 
By the law of partnership a firm note is a joint note. — 
Meservey's Book-Keeping, p. 214. 

59. 

$633^. B0ST02S-, Mass., July 1, 1887. 

Value received, we jointly and severally promise to 
pay John Blank, or order, sixty-three and -^^ dollars, 
sixty days after date, with interest. 

A. B. Meservet. 
C. D. Thyng. 

—Id., p. 217. 

60. A draft is a formal request in writing, made by a 
person upon another, to pay a third party a specified 



316 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

sum of money. When accepted, it binds the drawee. — 
Id., p. 109. 

61. The party who makes this request, is the drawer. 
The party to whom the request is made, is the drawee. 
Tlie party in whose favor the draft is drawn, is the 
payee. — Id., p. 109. 

62. 

$160.00. Pittsburgh, Pa., March, 18, 1887. 
Sixty days after sight, pay to the order of J. Mather 
one hundred and sixty dollars, value received, and charge 
to account of F. W. Jenkins. 

To G. W. Adams, ) 
Buffalo, N. Y. j 

— National Accountant, p. 54. 

63. The acceptance of a draft is the promise which 
the drawee makes when the bill is presented to him 
to pay it at maturity. This obligation is usually ac- 
knowledged by writing the word " Accepted," with his 
signature, across the face of the bill. — RoMnson's 
Higher Arith., p. 333. 

64. A protest is a formal declaration in writing, made 
by a notary public, at the request of the holder of a 
note, notifying the maker and the indorsers of its non- 
payment. — Id., p. 327. 

65. A notary public is a person legally empowered to 
attest deeds and other writings, whose principal busi- 
ness is to protest paper for non-payment. — Natio7ial Ac- 
countant, p. 319. 

66. A bill is a written statement from the creditor to 
the debtor specifying the nature and amount of the 
debt and the time it was incurred. — Stoddard^ s Complete 
Arith., p. Q^. 



BOOK-KEEPING, 317 

67. 

New York, Sept. 1, 1887. 
Thomas Mat Pierce 

Bought of Halliday S Smith. 



475 
704 



100 brls. Flour, " State Superfine," . .@ |6.30 
50 do. do. " St. Louis XX," ..@ 9.50 

110 do. do. "Western Extra," ..@ 6.40 

"1809 
Eeceived payment, 

Halliday & Smith. 

— Bryant and Stratton^s Com. School Booh-Keeping, 
p. 203. 

68. A receipt is a written acknowledgment of having 
received a sum of money or some other valuable consid- 
eration. — National Accountant, p. 319. 

69. 
$1000. New York, August 16, 1887. 

Eeceived of E. G. Folsom, One Thousand Dollars, 
the same to apply on contract for building house, dated 
May 1, 1887. 

George W. Latimer. 

— Bryant and Stratton's Booh-Keeping, p. 204. 



318 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 



QUESTIONS. 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

1. What is matter ? 

2. What is a body ? 

3. What are substances ? 

4. What are the divisions of matter, or in what forms 
may matter be said to exist ? 

5. What is a mass ? 

6. What is a molecule ? 

7. What is an atom ? 

8. How are molecules and atoms related ? 

9. What does the atomic theory suppose regarding the 
structure of bodies ? 

10. What is meant by molecular motion ? 

11. Has the motion of atoms within the molecule 
been proved ? 

12. What changes take place in matter ? 

13. What is a physical change ? 

14. Give an example of a physical change of matter. 

15. What is a chemical change of matter ? 

16. Give examples of chemical changes. 

17. What is a phenomenon ? 

18. Of what do the physical sciences treat ? 

19. What is meant by mechanics ? 

20. What is a property of matter ? 

21. What is a physical property of matter ? 

22. What are chemical properties of matter ? 

23. Give examples of chemical properties. 

24. Define Physics, or Natural Philosophy. 



NATURAL PEILOSOPHY. 319 

25. Of what does chemistry treat ? 

26. What are the general properties of matter ? 

27. Which of these may be called essential proper- 
ties ? 

28. What is meant by magnitude ? 

29. What is meant by impenetrability ? 

30. What is divisibility ? 

31 . What is porosity ? 

32. Define compressibility. 

33. What is meant by inertia ? 

34. What is meant by indestructibility ? 

35. Name some of the most important specific proper- 
ties of matter. 

. 36. What is meant by ductility ? 

37. What is meant by malleability ? 

38. Define tenacity. 

39. Define elasticity. 

40. In what three forms or conditions does matter 
exist ? 

41. In what two forms do aeriform bodies exist ? 

42. Define dynamics. 

43. What is motion ? 

44. What is force ? 

45. What are the great forces in nature ? 

46. What do we know of these forces ? 

47. What is meant by the momentum of a body ? 

48. How is momentum generally measured ? 

49. What do we mean by velocity ? 

50. Give Newton's three laws of motion. 

51. What is meant by centrifugal force ? 

52. Does such a force actually exist ? 

53. What is a resultant motion ? 

54. What is energy ? 

55. What is the standard for comparing the amount 
of work performed by different forces ? 



320 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

56. What is tlie estimated strength of a horse, or a 
** 1iorse-2)Ower " f 

57. What is a machine ? 

58. Can a machine create power ? 

59. What is the great general advantage of machin- 
ery ? 

60. What are the elements of machines ? 

61. What is meant by power and work as applied to 
machinery ? 

62. Give the general law of machines in regard to the 
relations between the power and the weight. 

63. What is a lever ? 

64. How are levers classified ? 

65. Define lever of first class, and give examples. 

66. Define lever of second class, and give examples. 

67. Define lever of third class, and give examples. 

68. Give laws of relation between power and weight 
in levers. 

69. If a power of 10 pounds act upon the long arm 
of a lever a distance of 6 feet from the fulcrum, what 
weight would it balance at a distance of 2 feet on the 
other side of the fulcrum ? 

70. How do we estimate the advantage of the wheel 
and axle ? 

71. How can we estimate the advantage gained by the 
use of the inclined plane ? 

72. How may we ascertain the advantage gained by 
pulleys ? 

73. How may we ascertain the advantage gained by 
the use of the screw ? 

74. Describe the force called affinity. 

75. What is cohesion ? 

76. What is adhesion ? 

77. What is gravitation ? 

78. What are the laws of gravitation ? 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 321 

79. Define center of gravity. 

80. What is weight ? 

81. Give three laws of weight. 

82. Give four laws of falling bodies. 

83. What is a pendulum ? 

84. Give three laws of the pendulum. 

85. What is the length of a second'' s pendulum at 
the level of the sea ? 

86. Define hydrostatics. 

87. What is Pascal's law ? 

88. What is the hydrostatic press ? 

89. What is the specific gravity of a body ? 

90. What is the standard for estimating the specific 
gravity of bodies ? 

91. How do we determine the specific gravity of 
solids heavier than water ? 

92. What is an hydrometer ? 

93. Define hydraulics. 

94. What is an hydraulic ram ? 

95. Define Pneumatics. 

96. What are the properties of gaseous bodies ? 

97. Give three laws of gases. 

98. What is meant by absolute temperature ? 

99. Of what is atmospheric air composed ? 

100. What pressure is exerted by the atmosphere ? 

101. What causes this weight or pressure of the 
atmosphere ? 

102. What is the weight of a cubic foot of air ? 

103. What machines or instruments are based on the 
principle of atmospheric pressure ? 

104. What was Torricelli's experiment ? 
305. What was Pascal's experiment ? 

106. Describe the barometer. 

107. How may the height of mountains be deter- 
mined by the barometer ? 

21 



322 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

108. How does a barometer indicate changes in the 
weather ? 

109. What is the supposed height of the atmosphere ? 

110. Explain the action of the lifting-pump. 

111. How high may water be raised by a lifting-pump? 

112. How doesaforce-pumpdifferfrom alifting-pump? 

113. Define acoustics. 

114. What is sound ? 

115. What is the cause of sound ? 

116. How is sound propagated ? 

117. What determines the power of a medium to 
transmit sound ? 

118. What is meant by the amplitude of a sound- 
wave ? 

119. With what velocity does sound travel ? 

120. How are musical sounds produced ? 

121. Upon what does the loudness of a musical sound 
depend ? 

122. Upon what does the pitch of a musical sound 
depend ? 

123. Upon what does the quality of a musical sound 
depend ? 

124. How does a noise differ from a musical sound ? 

125. What may be called the key-note of nature ? 

126. How may sound-waves be reflected ? 

127. How are echoes produced ? 

128. What is meant by an interference of sound ? 

129. What gives rise to what are called teats ? 

130. When are two musical notes in unison ? 

131. What is an octave ? 

132. Define Chord, Melody, Harmony. 

133. How may musical instruments be classified ? 

134. y^\\^ii& heat f 

135. What is temperature ? 

136. What is cold ? 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 323 

137. What are the principal sources of heat ? 

138. What is supposed to be the source of animal 
heat ? 

139. What is the mechanical equivalent of heat ? 

140. What is a thermometer ? 

141. How does the scale of marking in the Centigrade 
thermometer differ from Fahrenheit's ? 

142. Why does a heated body expand ? 

143. In what three ways is heat distributed or 
transmitted through surrounding bodies ? 

144. Define each of these methods. 

145. Do all bodies undergo a diminution of volume 
in passing from a liquid to a solid state ? 

146. What is meant by latent heat ? 

147. What is regarded as the unit of heat ? 

148. Do liquids give out heat when they change to 
a solid condition ? 

149. What is meant by the specific heat of a body ? 

150. What is a steam-engine ? 

151. Wliat are the two classes of steam-engines ? 

152. What are the advantages and disadvantages of 
high-pressure engines ? 

153. What is optics ? 

154. What is the nature of light ? 

155. What is the undulatory theory of light ? 

156. What are the laws of light ? 

157. What are the sources of light ? 

158. What is meant by rays, pencils, and learns of 
light ? 

159. What is the velocity of light ? 

160. Who first ascertained the velocity of light ? 

161. What is to be understood by the reflection of light? 

162. What are the laws of reflection ? 

163. What is meant by refraction of light ? 

164. What is the index of refraction ? 



324 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK, 

165. What are the laws of refraction ? 

166. What is the solar spectrum ? 

167. Describe the appearance of the solar spectrum. 

168. Upon what does this separation of white light 
depend ? 

169. How is difference in the color of light explained ? 

170. On what does the color of a body depend ? 

171. What is the cause of the rainbow ? 

172. What is a lens ? 

173. What is a microscope ? How many kinds ? 

174. What is a telescope ? Who invented it ? 

175. How many kinds of telescopes ? 

176. What is the nature of electricity ? 

177. According to source, how is electricity classified ? 

178. What is a natural magnet ? 

179. What are artificial magnets ? 

180. Name two laws of magnets. 

181. What is the effect of breaking a magnet ? 

182. What is an electro-magnet ? 

183. Does the magnetic needle point due north and 
south ? 

184. When was the compass discovered ? 

185. Who first established the identity of lightning 
and electricity ? 

186. What is the velocity of the electric current ? 

187. Describe the voltaic cell. 

188. What is a voltaic battery ? 

189. What is the Leyden jar ? 

190. How may thermo-electricity be produced ? 

191. What is an induction coil ? 

192. Describe the process of electrotyping. 

193. What is electro-plating ? 

194. Describe the incandescent electric lamp. 

195. Describe the Brush electric lamp, or the voltaic 
arc. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 325 



ANSWERS. 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

1. Matter is that which occupies space, and is the 
object of sense. Our knowledge of the material world 
is founded upon experience, or the evidence of our 
senses ; and the conviction that the same causes will 
always produce the same effects. — SiUiman's Principles 
of Physics, p. 1. 

2. A definite and limited portion of matter, whether 
it be a particle of dust or a planet, is called a lody. — 
Id., p. 1. 

3. The different kinds of matter are called substances. 
— First Booh in Philosophy, Gillet and Rolfe, p. 1. 

4. Matter may be considered as existing in masses, 
molecules, and atoms. — Avery's Elements of Natural 
Philosophy, p. 3. 

5. A mass is any quantity of matter that is composed 
of molecules. — Id., p. 2. 

6. A molecule is the smallest quantity of matter that 
can exist by itself. It is the physical unit of matter, and 
can be divided only by chemical means. — Id., p. 3. 

7. An atom is the smallest quantity of matter that 
can enter into combination. It is the chemical unit of 
matter, and is considered indivisible. — Id., p. 3. 

8. In nearly every case an atom is a part of a mole- 
cule. If a molecule of water be divided, it will cease to 
be water at all, but will yield two atoms of hydrogen 
and one of oxygen. The molecule of common salt con- 
sists of one atom of sodium and one of chlorine. Some 
molecules are very complex. The common sugar mole- 



326 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

cule contains forty-five atoms. Atoms make molecules ; 
molecules make masses. Of the absolute size and weight 
of molecules and atoms little is known ; of their relative 
size and weight much is known, and forms an important 
part of the science of chemistry. — Id. , p. 3. 

9. The structure of bodies is now generally held to be 
similar to that of tlie stellar universe. A body is not a 
continuous uninterrupted mass of matter, but is made 
up of a number of very minute and distinct particles, 
called atoms. These atoms are arranged, in various 
ways, into groups called molecules. The atoms corre- 
spond to the sun, moon, and planets, and the molecules 
to the solar systems. A body is made up of these mole- 
cules in the same way that the stellar universe is made 
up of solar systems. The spaces between the atoms and 
molecules within a body are probably as great, compared 
with the size of the molecules and atoms, as are the 
spaces between the planets, sun, and stars, compared 
with the size of these bodies. — First Booh in Philosophy, 
Gillet and Rolfe, p. 10. 

10. The atoms and molecules of a body are in inces- 
sant motion, as well as the planets and the solar sys- 
tems. The atoms are all the time moving to and fro 
within the molecules, and the molecules to and fro 
within the body. The motions of the atoms and mole- 
cules within a body are called molecular motions. — Id. 
p. 11. 

11. The motion of atoms within the molecule is prob- 
able, but has not yet been proved. — Avery's First Prin- 
ciples of Natural Philosophy, p. 6. 

13. The changes in matter are physical or chemical. 
— SilUman's Principles of Physics, p. 3. 

13. A physical change is one that does not change 
the identity of the molecule. — Avery's Elements of Nat- 
ural Philosophy, p. 4. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 327 

14. A piece of marble may be ground to powder, but 
each grain is marble still. Ice may change to water, 
and water to steam, yet the identity of the substance is 
unchanged, A piece of glass may be electrified and a 
piece of iron magnetized, but they still remain glass 
and iron. These changes all leave the composition and 
nature of the molecule unchanged ; they are physical 
changes. — Id., p. 4. 

15. A chemical change is one that does change the 
identity of the molecule. — Id., pp. 4, 5. 

16. If the piece of marble be acted upon by sulphuric 
acid, a brisk effervescence takes place caused by the es- 
cape of carbonic acid gas which was a constituent of the 
marble ; calcium sulphate (gypsum), not marble, will 
remain. The water may, by the action of electricity, 
be decomposed into two parts of hydrogen and one of 
oxygen. These change the nature of the molecule ; 
they are chemical changes. — Id., p. 5. 

17. Any manifestation or occurrence is called a phe- 
nomenon. Illustrations. — The shining of a star, the 
falling of a stone, and the growth of a plant, are all 
phenomena. — First Booh in PMlosopliy, Oillet and 
Rolfe, p. 20. 

18. The physical sciences treat of matter and force 
irrespective of the phenomena of life. The chief physi- 
cal sciences are mechanics, astronomy, physics, and chem- 
istry. — Id., p. 21. 

19. Mechanics is that branch of physical science 
which treats of the action of force, and of the laws of 
motion, irrespective of any particular order of material 
units. — Id., p. 21. 

20. Any quality that belongs to matter or is charac- 
teristic of it is called a property of matter. Properties 
of matter are of two classes, physical and chemical. — 
Avery's Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 6. 



328 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

21. A physical property is one that can exist in a sub- 
stance without essentially changing the molecular 
structure of that or of any other substance. Examples : 
melting point, color, weight. — Steele's Fourteen Weeks 
in Philosophy, p. 14. 

22. The properties of matter which grow out of the 
atomic structure of the molecules and the action of af- 
finity are called chemical changes. — Elementary Phi- 
losophy, Gillet and Rolfe, p. 4. 

23. The power of gunpowder to explode, the tendency 
of wood to unite with the oxygen of the air and so de- 
cay, the reciprocal action of soda and cream of tartar to 
cause effervescence, are chemical properties. — Steele's 
Fourteen Weehs iti Philosophy, p. 14. 

24. Physics, or Natural Philosophy, is the branch of 
science that treats of the laws and physical properties of 
matter, and of those phenomena that depend upon phy- 
sical changes. — Avery's First Principles of Natural 
Philosophy, p. 9. 

25. Chemistry treats of the atoms, and of the atomic 
structure of the molecules, of the action of affinity, and 
of chemical properties and changes. — First Book in 
Philosophy, Gillet and Rolfe, p. 22. 

26. The following are the general properties of mat- 
ter : Magnitude or Extension, Impenetrability, Divisi- 
bility, Porosity, Compressibility, Inertia, and Indestruc- 
tibility. — Wells's Natural Philosophy, p. 5. 

27. The essential properties of matter are (1) ?wa^wi- 
tude, or extension, (2) impenetrability. We cannot 
conceive of matter without magnitude, and it is equally 
clear that the space occupied by any given particle of 
matter cannot, at the same time, be occupied by any 
other particle. — Silliman's Principles of Physics, p. 5. 

28. By magnitude we mean the property of occupy- 
ing space. — Wells's Natural PMlosop)hy, p. 5. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 329 

29. By impenetrability we mean that property or 
quality of matter which renders it impossible for two 
separate bodies to occupy the same space at the same 
time. — Id., p. 6. 

30. Divisibility is that property which allows a body to 
be separated into parts. The extent to which divisibility 
of matter may be carried is almost incredible. Ex- 
ample : a grain of strychnine will flavor 1,750,000 
grains of water ; hence there will be in each grain of 
the liquid only ^^g^oQ^ of a grain of strychnine, yet this 
amount can be distinctly tasted. — Steele's New Physics, 
p. 16. 

31. Porosity is that property of matter by virtue of 
which spaces exist between the molecules. — Avery's 
Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 16. 

32. Compressibility is that property of matter by vir- 
tue of which a body may be reduced in size. — Id., 
p. 17. 

33. Inertia is that property of matter by virtue of 
which it is incapable of changing its condition of rest or 
motion, or the property by virtue of which it has a ten- 
dency when at rest to remain at rest, or when in motion 
to continue in motion. — Id., pp. 14, 15. 

34. Indestructibility is the property which renders 
matter incapable of being destroyed . Example : We 
cut down a tree, saw it into boards, and build a house. 
The house burns and only little heaps of ashes remain. 
Yet in the ashes, and in the smoke of the burning 
building, exist the identical atoms, which have passed 
through the various forms unchanged. — Steele's New 
Physics, p. 18. 

35. Among the most important specific properties of 
matter are ductility, malleability, tenacity, elasticity, 
hardness, and brittleness. — Id., p. 19. 

36. Ductility is that property in virtue of which a 



330 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

substance admits of being drawn into a wire. — Wells's 
Natural Philosophy, p. 21. 

37. Malleability is that property by virtue of which a 
substance can be reduced to thin leaves, or plates by 
hammering, or by means of intense pressure of rollers.— 
Id., p. 21. 

38. Tenacity is that property of matter by virtue of 
which some bodies resist a force tending to pull their 
particles asunder. — Avery^s Elements of Natural Phi- 
losophy, jt?. 19. 

39. Elasticity is that property of matter by virtue of 
which bodies resume their original form or size when 
that form or size has been changed by any external force. 
— Id., p. 17. 

40. Matter exists in three forms or conditions — the 
solid, the liquid, and the aeriform. Examples : Ice is 
solid ; water is liquid ; steam is aeriform. — Avery^s First 
Principles of Natural Philosophy, p. 20. 

41. Aeriform bodies are of two kinds, gases and vapors. 
Gases remain aeriform under ordinary conditions, 
although they may be changed to the liquid form by 
intense cold and pressure. Oxygen is a gas. Vapors 
are produced by heat from substances that are generally 
solid or liquid. They resume the solid or liquid form 
at ordinary temperature. Steam is a vapor. — Id., 
p.%1. 

42. Dynamics is that branch of Physics which treats 
of forces and their effects. — Avery' s Elements of Natural 
Philosophy, p. 25. 

43. Motion is a changing of position. Nobody can 
move or be moved from one place to another without 
motion. — Avery's First Principles of Natural Philoso- 
phy, p. 36. 

44. Force is the name given to the influence which 
tends to produce or diminish or in any way change the 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 331 

motion of bodies. — Cooley's New Natural Pliilosophy, 
p. 8. 

45. All the great forces or agents in nature, those 
which produce or are the cause of all the changes which 
take place in matter, may be enumerated as follows : 
Internal or Molecular Forces, the Attraction of Gravita- 
tion, Heat and Light, Electricity (including Magnetism), 
and, finally, a force or power which exists only in living 
animals and plants, which is called Vital Force. — Wells^s 
Natural Philosophy, pp. 15, 16. 

46. Concerning the real nature of these forces we are 
entirely ignorant. We suppose, or say, they exist, be- 
cause we see their effects upon matter. — Id., p. 16. 

47. The momentum of a body is its quantity of mo- 
tion. Momentum depends upon the weight of the mov- 
ing body and its velocity or rapidity of motion. — Avery's 
First Principles of Natural Philosophy, p. 27. 

48. Momentum is generally measured by the product 
of the numbers representing the weight and the velocity. 
The unit of momentum has no definite name. M = 
W X v.— Id., p. 27. 

49. By velocity we mean the rate of motion. Veloc- 
ity is usually stated in feet or miles per second, or in 
miles per hour. — First Book in Philosophy, Gillet and 
Rolfe, p. 23. 

50. (1) Every body continues in its state of rest or of 
uniform motion in a straight line, unless compelled to 
change that state by an external force. 

(2) Every motion or change of motion is in the direc- 
tion of the force impressed and is proportionate to it. 

(3) Action and reaction are equal and opposite in 
direction. — Avery's First Principles of Natural Phi- 
losophy, p. 28. 

51. The tendency of matter to move in a straight line 
and, consequently, farther away from the center around 



332 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

which it is revolving, is called centrifugal force. — 
Averifs Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 33. 

b'i. It is to be noticed that this so-called '^Centrifu- 
gal Force " is not a force at all. It is simply inertia 
manifested under special conditions. — Id., p. 33. 

53. Motion produced by action of two or more forces 
is called resultant motion. — Id., p. 34. 

54. Energy is the capacity for doing work, or over- 
coming resistance. It is called actual energy, or energy 
of motion, in relation to the work it is doing ; and po- 
tential energy, or energy of position, in relation to the 
work it is capable of performing. — Wells's Natural 
Philosophy, p. 83. 

55. For comparing the different quantities of work 
done by any force, it is necessary to have some standard; 
and this standard is the power or labor expended in 
raising a pound weight one foot high, in opposition to 
gravity. This standard is known as the foot-pound. — 
Id., p. 86. 

56. The estimated strength of a horse is, that he can 
raise a weight of thirty-three thousand foot-pounds. 
Such a measure of force is called a "horse-power.'^ — 
Id., p. 86. 

57. A machine is an instrument, or apparatus, 
adapted to receive, distribute, and apply motion derived 
from some external force, in such a way as to produce 
a desired result. — Id., p. 89. 

58. A machine cannot, under any circumstances, 
create power, or increase the quantity of power, or 
force, applied to it. — Id., p. 89. 

59. The great general advantage that we obtain from 
machinery is, that it enables us to exchange time and 
space for power. — Id., p. 91. 

60. Every machine, however complicated, is made 
up of very few elements, called simple machines, or 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 333 

mechanical powers. These are the lever, the wheel and 
axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the 
screw. — Elementary Philosophy, Oillet and Rolfe, p. 
39. 

61. The force applied to work the machine is called 
the power ; and the resistance overcome by the machine, 
the work. The resistance is often called the lueight. — 
Id., p. 39. 

62. If we represent the work done by the power upon 
the machine by a falling weight, and the work done by 
the machine npon the resistance by a rising weight, we 
arrive at the following general law of machines : The 
power multiplied by the distance through lohich it moves 
is always equal to the lueight multiplied hy the distance 
through ivhich it moves. — Id., pp. 39, 40. 

63. The lever is a rigid bar, capable of turning upon a 
fixed point or axis. The point on which the lever turns 
is called the fulcrum. — Id., p. 42. 

64. There are three classes of levers, depending upon 
the relative positions of the power, weight, and fulcrum. 
— Avery's First Principles of Natural Philosophy, ji?.70. 

65. If the fulcrum is between the power and weight, 
the lever is of the first class; e. g., crow-bar, balance, 
scissors, pincers. — Id., p. 70. 

66. If the weight is between the power and the fulcrum, 
the lever is of the second class ; e. g., cork-squeezer, nut- 
cracker, wheelbarrow. — Id., p. 70. 

67. If the power is between the weight and the ful- 
crum, the lever is of the third class ; e. g., fire-tongs, 
sheep-shears, human fore-arm . — Id., p. 70. 

68. (1) The power multiplied by the power-arm equals 
the weight multiplied by the weight-arm ; or (2) A given 
power will support a weight as many times as great as 
itself, as the power-arm is times as long as the weight- 
arm. — Id., pp. 71, 72, 



334 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

69. Ans. Thirty pounds. — Gooley^ s New Natural Phi- 
losophy, p. 303. 

70. The power is to the weight as the radius of the 
axle is to the radius of the wheel. — Wells's Natural Phi- 
losophy, p. 101. 

71. The power is to the weight as the perpendicular 
height of the plane is to its length. — Id., p. 108. 

73. In general the advantage gained by pulleys is found 
by multiplying the number of movable pulleys by two, 
or by multiplying the power by the number of folds in 
the rope which sustains the weight, where one rope runs 
through the whole. — Id., p. 106. 

73. The advantage of the screw is in proportion as the 
circumference of the circle described by the power (that 
is, by the handle of the lever) exceeds the distance be- 
tween the threads of the screw. — Id., p. 113. 

74. Affinity is the force which binds together the atoms 
into molecules. It is therefore an atomic force. It is 
the strongest of the forces, but it acts only through in- 
finitesimal distances. — Avery^s Elementary Philosophyy 
p. 3. 

75. Cohesion is a molecular force. It binds together 
molecules into bodies. It is a weaker force than affinity, 
but is capable of acting through greater, though still 
insensible distances. — Id., p. 3. 

76. Adhesion is the force which holds together mole- 
cules of different kinds. — Steele's Neiv Physics, p. 47. 

77. Every particle of matter in the universe has an at- 
traction for every other particle. This attractive force 
is called gravitation. — Avery's Elements of Natural Phi- 
losophy, p. 46. 

78. (1) Gravitation varies directly as the product of 
the masses. (3) Gravitation varies inversely as the square 
of the distance between the centers of gravity. — Id., p, 
47. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 335 

79. The center of gravity of a body is the point about 
which all the matter composing the body may be bal- 
anced. — Id., p. 49. 

80. Weight is measure of the force of gravity. — Steele's 
New Physics, p. 52. 

81. 1. The weight of a body at the center of the earth 
is nothing because the attraction there is equal in every 
direction. 

2. The weight of a body above the surface of the earth 
decreases as the square of the distance from the center 
of the earth increases. 

3. The weight of a body varies on different portions 
of the surface of the earth. — Id., p. 53. 

82. 1. Under the influence of gravity alone, all bodies 
fall with equal rapidity. 

2. In the first second a body gains a velocity of 32 feet 
and falls 16 feet. 

3. At the end of any given second, the velocity is 16 
feet multiplied by twice the number of the second ; and 
the distance passed through during that second is 16 feet 
multiplied by twice the number of the second minus 
one. 

4. In any number of seconds a body falls 16 feet mul- 
tiplied by the square of the number of seconds. — Id., pp. 
54, 55. 

83. A body hanging from a fixed point under which it 
can swing freely is called a pendulum. — Cooley's New 
Natural Philosophy, p. 93. 

84. 1. The vibrations of a given pendulum, at any given 
place, are performed in equal times, whether the arc be 
long or short. 

2. The time of the vibration is independent of the 
weight or material of the pendulum. 

3. The vibrations of pendulums of different lengths are 
performed in different times. The lengths are inversely 



336 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

proportional to the squares of the numbers of yibrations 
in a given time. — Avery's First Principles of Natural 
Pliilompliy , pp. 52, 53. 

85. The length of a second's pendulum at the level of 
the sea, is 39 inches at the equator; 39.2 inches, near 
the poles ; and about 39.1 inches or 993.3 millimeters or 
.9933 meters, in this latitude. — Id., p. 53. 

86. Hydrostatics is that department of physical sci- 
ence which treats of the weight, pressure, and equilib- 
rium of water and other liquids at rest. — Wells's Nat- 
ural Pliilosopliy, p. 118. 

87. If any pressure is brought to bear on any portion 
of the surface of a fluid which fills a closed vessel, a 
pressure just equal to it will be transmitted through 
the fluid to every equal portion of the surface. This 
law was enunciated by Pascal, and is known as Pas- 
caTs law. — Elementary Philosophy, Gillet and Rolfe, 
p. 55. 

88. The Hydraulic or Hydrostatic Press is a machine 
arranged in such a manner that the advantages de- 
rived from the principle that liquids transmit pres- 
sure equally in all directions, may be practically ap- 
plied. — Wells's Natural Philosophy, p. 122. 

89. The specific gravity of a body is the weight of a 
given bulk or volume of the substance, compared with 
the weight of the same bulk or volume of some other 
substance. — Id., p. 136. 

90. Distilled water has been taken, by common con- 
sent, as the standard for comparing the weights of all 
bodies in the solid or liquid form. — Id., p. 136. 

91. Ascertain the weight of the body in water, and 
also in air. Divide the weight in air by the loss of 
weight in water, and the quotient will be the specific 
gravity required. — Id., p. 136. 

92. An hydrometer is an instrument for finding the 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, 337 

specific gravity of liquids. — Avery^s Elementary Phi- 
losophy, p. 62. 

93. Hydraulics is that department of physical science 
which treats of the laws of liquids in motion. — Wells's 
Natural Philosophy, p. 151. 

94. The hydraulic ram is a machine constructed to 
raise water by taking advantage of the impulse, or mo- 
mentum, of a current of water suddenly stopped in its 
course, and made to act in another direction. — Id., p. 
166. 

95. Pneumatics is that branch of physics which treats 
of aeriform bodies, their mechanical properties, and the 
machines by which they are used. — Avery's Elements of 
Natural Philosophy, p. 156. 

96. The most characteristic properties of gaseous 
bodies are compressibility and expansibility. Besides 
these, gases possess other properties common to all forms 
of matter, among which we notice elasticity, weight, 
and mobility. — Cooley's Neiv Natural Philosophy, p. 43. 

97. 1. Equal volumes of all gases, at the same tem- 
perature and under the same pressure, contain the same 
number of molecules. This is Avogadrd' s law. 

2. The volume of a confined mass of gas varies in- 
versely as the pressure to which it is exposed. The less 
the pressure the greater the volume, and the greater the 
pressure the less the volume. This is Mariotte's law. 

3. The volume of a gas under constant pressure 
varies directly as the absolute temperature of the gas. 
This is Charles's law. — Elementary Philosophy, Gillet 
and Rolfe, pp. 64, 65. 

98. By absolute temperature is meant temperature 
measured from a point 459° below the ordinary zero. 
The temperature indicated by an ordinary thermom- 
eter may be converted into absolute temperature by add- 
ing 459° to \t.—Td., p. 65. 

23 



338 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

99. Atmospheric air is composed of oxygen and nitro- 
gen mixed together in the proportion of seventy-seven 
parts of nitrogen and twenty-three of oxygen, or about 
three-fourths nitrogen to one-fourth oxygen. These 
two gases existing in the atmosphere are not chemically 
combined with each other, but merely mixed. — WelWs 
Natural Philosoijhy, p. 169. 

100. The pressure of the air at the level of the sea is 
about fifteen pounds to the square inch. As we ascend 
in the atmosphere, this pressure is less and less, because 
there is less depth of air above us. — First Booh of Phi- 
losophy, Gillet and Rolfe, p. 78. 

101. The weight of air, like the weight of wood or 
iron, is caused by the attraction of gravitation. — Ele- 
ments of Natural Philosophy, Cooley, p. 45. 

102. Under ordinary conditions, a cubic foot of air 
weighsabout 0.31 grains. — Avery's First Principles of 
Natural Philosophy, p. 123. 

103. The principle of atmospheric pressure is applied 
in the construction of many very useful instruments. 
We will notice the larometer, the common pump, the 
forcing pump, and the siphon. — Cooley' s Neio Natural 
Philosophy , p. 52. 

104. Torricelli took a glass tube somewhat more than 
30 inches long and closed at one end, and filled with 
mercury. He then closed the tube with his thumb, and 
inverted it in a dish of mercury. On opening the tube 
under the mercury, he found that the mercury fell in 
the tube till the top of the column stood about 30 
inches above the surface of the mercury in the dish. 
Such a tube is called a Torricellian tube, and the space 
above the column of mercury in the tube is called a 
Torricellian vacuum. — Elementary Philosophy, Gillet 
and Rolfe, pp. 80, 81. 

105. Pascal had a Torricellian tube taken from the 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 339 

bottom to the top of a mountain, and found that the 
column of mercury fell in the tube as the ascent pro- 
gressed. He therefore concluded that the mercury was 
kept up in the tube ly the pressure of the atmosphere on 
the surface of the mercury in the vessel, since the pres- 
sure would necessarily become less and less as we ascend 
from the level of the sea. — Id., p. 81. 

106. The barometer is an instrument for measuring 
the pressure of the atmosphere. It is a Torricellian 
tube furnished with a convenient case. The vessel of 
mercury at the bottom must be constructed so as to pre- 
vent the spilling of the mercury in transportation, and 
so as to allow the atmosphere to act freely upon the 
mercury. — Id., p. 81. 

107. Owing to the variations in the density of the air, 
as we ascend, the pressure changes according to a com- 
plicated law ; and this complicates the formula for find- 
ing the exact elevation of a place from the readings of 
the barometer. As a rough rule, it may be stated that 
the barometer falls one inch for every 900 feet of ascent. 
—Id., p. 82. 

108. A rising column indicates fair weather ; a falling 
column indicates foul weather. This rule is to a great 
extent reliable. — Cooley's New Natural Philosophy, p. 
54. 

109. The absolute height to which the atmosphere 
extends above the surface of the earth is not certainly 
known. There are good reasons, however, for believing 
that its height does not exceed fifty miles. — WelWs Nat- 
ural Philosophy, p. 182. 

110. By the first strokes of the piston the air is taken 
out of the cylinders, and then the pressure of the atmos- 
phere upon the water in the well pushes the water up 
into the pump, just as it will push water up into a straw 
or other tube when the air is drawn out at the top by 



340 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

applying the lips. After the air has all been taken out, 
the water will fill the pump full to the spout, and then 
every time the piston is raised ifc will lift a portion of 
the water out at the spout, while more is pushed in at 
the bottom by the air to take its place. — GooUy^s Ele- 
ments of Natural Philosophy, p. 54. 

111. If the valves and piston were fitted air-tight, the 
water could be raised 34 feet (more exactly 1*3^ times 
the height of the barometric column) to the lower valve ; 
but owing to various imperfections, it commonly reaches 
about 28 feet. For a similar reason we sometimes find 
a dozen strokes necessary to ** bring water." — Steele's 
Neio Physics, p. 112. 

112. The force-pump has no valve in the piston. 
The water rises above the lower valve as in the lifting- 
pump. When the piston descends, the pressure opens 
the valve and forces the water into an upward pipe 
which connects with the lower part of the cylinder. 
This pipe may be made of any length, and thus the 
water driven to any height. — Id., p. 112. 

113. Acoustics is that department of physical science 
which treats of the nature, phenomena, and laws of 
sound. It also includes the theory of musical concord 
or harmony. — WelWs Natural Philosophy, p. 200. 

114. Sound is the impression produced on the sense 
of hearing by the vibrations of sonorous bodies. These 
vibrations are transmitted to the ear by the surrounding 
medium, which is ordinarily the atmospheric air. — 
SillimarCs Principles of Physics, p. 252. 

115. All sounds may be traced to the vibrations of 
some material body. When a bell is struck, the edges 
of the bell are set in rapid vibration, as may be seen by 
holding a card or finger-nail lightly upon the edge. 
The particles of the bell strike the adjacent particles of 
air, these pass the motion thus received on to the air 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 341 

particles next beyond, and these to those beyond. — 
Avery's Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 369. 

116. If a tuning-fork be struck against any hard body, 
its prong at once vibrates, and in so doing causes the air 
next to it to yibrate also. These yibrations are trans- 
mitted by a succession of condensations and rarefactions 
like waves along the surface of water. To each complete 
vibration of the prong a series of condensations therefore 
corresponds, a condensed half-wave ; then a series of 
dilations, a dilated half-wave ; the whole forming a com- 
plete sounding- wave ; which is propagated through the 
air. In a sound wave or undulation of the air there is 
no permanent change of place among the particles, but 
simply an agitation, or tremor, communicating from 
one particle to another ; so that each particle, like a 
pendulum which has been made to oscillate, recovers afc 
length its original position. — WelWs Natural Philoso- 
phy, p. 204. 

117. The power of a medium to transmit sound varies 
with its density and elasticity. — Id., p. 204. 

118. Amplitude means the distance between the ex-, 
treme positions of the vibrating particles, or the length 
of its journey. As in the case of the pendulum, ampli- 
tude and period are independent of each other. Ampli- 
tude is also independent of wave length. — Avery's Ele- 
ments of Natural Philosophy, p. 369. 

119. Sound travels, when the temperature is at 62° 
Fahrenheit's thermometer, at a rate of 1,120 feet per 
second, or about thirteen miles per minute, or 765 miles 
per hour. The velocity of sound increases or diminishes 
at the rate of thirteen inches for every variation of a 
degree in temperature above or below the temperature of 
62° Fahrenheit. — Wells's Natural Philosophy, p. 206. 

120. Musical sounds are produced by regular vibra- 
tions, uniform in duration and intensity. In connection 



342 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

with them we must consider three things — loudness, 
pitch, and quality. — Quachenbos' Natural Philosophy, 
p. 281. 

121. The loudness of a musical sound depends on the 
amplitude of the vibrations producing it. The greater 
the vibrations, the louder is the sound. — Id., p. 281. 

122. The pitch of a musical sound depends on the 
rapidity of the vibrations producing it. The more rapid 
the vibrations, the higher is the pitch. — Id., pp. 281, 
282. 

123. The quality of a musical sound depends on the 
nature of the vibrating body. The human voice, the 
piano, and the flute, may all produce a note of precisely 
the same loudness and pitch, and yet we readily dis- 
tinguish them apart. The difference lies in their 
quality.— M, JO. 282. 

124. Sound in a musical sense, or tone, is the sensa- 
tion produced by a series of equal atmospheric vibra- 
tions. Noise is the sensation produced by unequal vi- 
brations. — jSiUiman's Principles of Physics, p. 252. 

125. The aggregate sound of nature, as heard in the 
roar of a distant city, or the waving foliage of a large 
forest, is said to be a single definite tone, of appreciable 
pitch. This tone is held to be middle F of the piano- 
forte — which therefore may be called the key-note of 
nature. — Id., p. 252. 

126. When sound-waves meet the surface of a new 
medium, they are, in part, thrown back, or reflected. 
In this reflection, as in all cases of reflected motion, 
the angle of incidence and reflection are equal to each 
other. — Elementary Philosophy, Gillet and Rolfe, 
p. 99. 

127. Echoes are produced by the reflection of sound. 
In order to get an echo, we must have a reflecting sur- 
face far enough away to give an appreciable interval be- 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 343 

tween the direct and reflected sounds. When the sur- 
face is less than 100 feet distant, the reflected sound 
blends with the direct sound. — Id., pp. 99, 100. 

128. The meeting of two sound waves so as to neu- 
tralize each other is called an interference of sound. — 
Id., p. 102. 

129. When two tuning-forks do not make the same 
number of vibrations in a second, the two series of sound- 
waves meet so as to alternately intensify and destroy 
each other, and give rise to ''beats." — Wells's Natural 
Philosophy, p. 208. 

130. Two musical notes are said to be in unison when 
the vibrations which cause them are performed in equal 
times. — Id., p. 217. 

131. When one note makes twice the number of vi- 
brations in a given time that another makes, it is said 
to be its octave. — Id., p. 217. 

132. A combination of harmonious sounds is termed 
a musical chord ; a succession of harmonious notes, a 
melody ; and a succession of chords, harmony. A melody 
can be performed or executed by a single voice ; a 
harmony requires two or more voices at the same time. 
—Id., p. 217. 

133. Musical instruments may be divided into two 
classes, stringed instruments and wind instruments. 
The sounds sent forth by stringed instruments are due 
to the regular vibrations of solids ; those sent forth by 
wind instruments, to the regular vibrations of columns 
of air confined in sonorous tubes. — Avery's Elements of 
Natural Philosophy, pp. 405, 406. 

134. Heat is a form of energy. It consists of vibra- 
tory motions of the molecules of matter or results from 
such motions, and gives rise to the well-known sensa- 
tions of warmth and cold. By means of these effects 
upon the animal body it is generally recognized. Being 



344 TKE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

a form of energy, it is a measurable quantity but not a 
material substance. — Id., p. 413. 

135. The temperature of a body is its state considered 
with reference to its ability to communicate heat to 
other bodies.— /<i., ^. 413. 

136. Cold is a relative term, expressing only the ab- 
sence of heat in a degree ; not its total absence, for heat 
exists always in all bodies, and, so far as we know, with- 
out limit. — Wells's Natural Pliilosopliy, p. 227. 

137. The principal sources of heat are the sun, chemi- 
cal action, mechanical action, and electricity. — QuacTc- 
enbos' Natural Pliilosoplmj , p. 193. 

138. To chemical action is attributable animal or 
vital heat, that is, the heat generated in all organic 
beings that possess life. — Id., p. 196. 

139. As mechanical force is convertible into heat, so 
heat is convertible into mechanical force. The amount 
of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound 
of water one degree, would if applied mechanically, 
raise it 772 feet high. This is expressed briefly by say- 
ing that the mechanical equivalent of heat is 772 foot- 
pounds. — Id., p. 198. 

140. An instrument for measuring temperature is 
called a thermometer. — Avery's Elements of Natural 
Pliilosopliy, p. 413. 

141. The freezing-point, Centigrade, is 0° ; the freez- 
ing-point, Fahrenheit, is 32°. The boiling-point, Centi- 
grade, is 100° ; Fahrenheit, 212°. The tube between 
the two points is divided into 100 equal parts for the 
Centigrade scale and into 180 for Fahrenheit's. Hence 
a change of temperature of 5° C. is equal to a change 
of 9° F., or an interval of one Centigrade degree is equal 
to an interval of | of a Fahrenheit degree. — Id., p. 415. 

142. The molecules of bodies are all the time moving 
rapidly to and fro. When heat is applied to a body, 



NATURAL PEILOSOPET. 315 

its molecules are made to move more rapidly, and this 
increased agitation causes them to move farther apart, 
and the body to expand. — Elementary Philosophy, Gil- 
let and Rolfe, p. 119. 

143. There are three modes of distribution, by con- . 
duction, by convection, and by radiation. — Steele's New 
Physics, pp. 192, 193. 

144. 1. Conduction is the process of heating by the 
passage of heat from molecule to molecule. 2. Convec- 
tion is the process of heating by circulation. 3. Eadia-, 
tion is the transmission of heat rays in straight lines. — 
Id., pp. 192, 193. 

145. In passing from a liquid to a solid state, bodies 
generally undergo a diminution of volume ; there are, 
however, exceptions, such as ice, bismuth, silver, cast- 
iron, and type-metal. It is this property which renders 
these latter substances so well adapted for casting, as it 
enables the metal to penetrate completely into every 
part of the mold. — Elementary Philosophy, Gillet and 
Rolfe, p. 124. 

146. During the conversion of a solid into a liquid, 
or a liquid into a gas or vapor, a certain quantity of 
heat is absorbed or disappears. As the thermometer and 
the senses give no evidence of the existence of this 
heat, it is called latent heat. — Silliman's Priticiples of 
Physics, p. 452. 

147. The quantity of heat which is required to raise 
a pound of pure water from 32° to 33° F. is reckoned 
as the 2t7iit of heat, or thermal unit, both in this coun- 
try and in England. — Id., p. 447. 

148. When liquids return to the solid state, the heat 
which has been absorbed during their liquefaction, and 
rendered latent, is given out. — Id., p. 455. 

149. The specific heat of a body is the ratio between 
the quantity of heat required to warm that body one 



346 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

degree, and the quantity of heat required to warm an 
equal weight of water one degree. — Avery's Elements 
of Philosophy, ^.446. 

150. The steam-engine is a machine for utilizing the 
tension of steam. Its essential parts are a boiler for the 
generation of steam, and a cylinder for the application 
of the tension to the piston. — Id., p. 4G6. 

151. There are two classes, high-pressure and low- 
pressure. In the former the steam after it has done its 
work, is forced out into the air ; in the latter, it is con- 
densed in a separate chamber by a spray of cold water. — 
Steele's New Physics, p. 105. 

152. High-pressure engines are generally used in all 
situations where simplicity and lightness are required, as 
in the case of the locomotive ; also in situations where a 
free supply of water for condensation cannot be readily 
obtained. As they use steam -at a much higher pres- 
sure than the condensing engines, they are more liable 
to accidents arising from explosions. High-pressure en- 
gines are less expensive than low-pressure, since all the 
apparatus for condensing the steam is dispensed with, 
the only parts necessary being the boiler, cylinder, pis- 
ton, and valves. — Wells's Natural Philosophy, p. 283. 

153. Optics is the science that treats of light and 
vision. — Quackenhos' Natural Philosophy, p. 229. 

154. Light is one of the modes of force originating in 
molecular motion, by the action of which upon the eye 
we are enabled to see. — Id., p. 229. 

155. All space is believed to be pervaded by an exceed- 
ingly subtle and almost infinitely elastic fluid to which 
the name ether is applied. The vibrating atoms in a 
luminous body millions of miles away, communicating 
their motion to the contiguous ether, cause it to move 
in minute waves, like the surface of a pond rippled by 
throwing in a stone. These undulations are transmitted 



NATURAL PEILOSOPEY. 347 

with inconceivable rapidity to the eye, strike the sensi- 
tive membrane that lines it, and produce the sensation 
of light. This Undulatory Theory, as it is called, advan- 
ced by Des Cartes [da-kart], but first definitely laid down 
by Huyghens, explains most of the phenomena of optics, 
and is now universally received. — Id., p. 229. 

156. 1. Light passes off from a luminous body equally 
in every direction. 2. Light travels through a uniform 
medium in straight lines. 3. The intensity of light de- 
creases as the square of the distance increases. — Steele's 
Neiv Physics, p. 150. 

157. The sources of light are the sun and stars, heat, 
chemical combinations, phosphorescence, and electricity. 
— SilUman's Principles of Physics, p. 292. 

158. A single line of light is called a ray. A ieam of 
light is a collection of parallel rays. A pencil of light is 
a collection of rays diverging from a common source, or 
converging to a point. — Id., p. 293. 

159. The velocity of light is about 186,000 miles a sec- 
ond. — Elementary Philosophy, Gillet and Rolfe, p. 150. 

160. The velocity of light was first determined by 
Von Eoemer, an eminent Danish astronomer, from ob- 
servations on the satellites of Jupiter. — Wells's Natural 
Philosophy, p. 323. 

161. A change in the direction of light without a 
change in its medium is called reflection of light. — 
Avery's Elements of Natural Philosophy, p. 483. 

162. 1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle 
of reflection. 

2. The incident and reflected rays are both in the same 
plane, which is perpendicular to the reflecting surf ace. — 
Jf/.,j9. 484. 

163. Refraction of light is the bending of a luminous 
ray when it passes from one medium to another. — Id., p. 
501. 



348 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

164. The quotient iirising from dividing the sine of 
incidence by the sine of the angle of refraction is called 
the index of refraction for the two media. — Id., p. 501. 

165. 1. When light passes perpendicularly from one 
medium to another it is not refracted. 

2. When light passes obliquely from a rarer to a den- 
ser medium, it is refracted toward a line drawn, at the 
point of incidence, perpendicular to the refracting sur- 
face, or, more briefly, it is refracted toward the perpen- 
dicular. 

3. When light passes' obliquely from a denser to a 
rarer medium, it is refracted from the perpendicular. 

4. The incident and refracted rays are in the same 
plane, which is perpendicular to the refracting surface. 

5. The index of refraction is constant for the same two 
media. — Id., p. 502. 

166. The image formed by a ray of white light 
passing through a prism is called the solar spectrum. — 
Wells^s Natural Pliilosopliy, p. 358. 

1G7. The solar spectrum is divided horizontally into 
seven colored spaces or bands, of unequal extent, which 
succeed each other in an invariable order ; viz., red, 
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. — Id., p. 359. 

168. The separation of the seven different rays com- 
prising white light from one another depends entirely 
upon a difference in their refrangibility in passing 
through the prism. — Id., p. 359. 

169. According to the und%datory theory, the color of 
light depends on the size of the minute waves that pro- 
duce it. The undulations that excite in the eye the sen- 
sation of red light are each g^^^,;, of an inch in breadth ; 
those that produce violet, eo^oiro '■> while the intermedi- 
ate colors are produced by undulations varying between 
these limits. — QuacJcenhos' Natural Pliilosophy, p. 256. 

170. Natural objects possess the power of absorbing- or 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 349 

extinguishing certain of the rays of light which fall upon 
them. This absorption is selective, and on this fact de- 
pend the phenomena of color. When the light which 
enters a body is wholly absorbed, the body appears black; 
when all the rays are equally but not wholly absorbed, 
the body appears gray ; while a body which absorbs the 
various kinds of light unequally is colored. — Wells's 
Natural Philosophy, y. 363. 

171. The rainbow is produced by the refraction and 
reflection of the solar rays iu the drops of falling rain. — 
Id., p. 367. 

172. A lens is a transparent body, with at least one 
curved surface. There are two general classes of lenses, 
concave and convex. — Steele's New Physics, p. 159. 

173. The microscope is an instrument which enables 
us to see objects too small to be discerned by the naked 
eye. This is the case with objects whose visual angle is 
less than g^y- of one degree ; the microscope enables us 
to see them by increasing their visual angle. Micro- 
scopes are either simple or compound. A simple micro- 
scope is one through which the object is viewed directly. 
With the compound microscope a magnified image of 
the object is viewed, and not the object itself. — Quach- 
enbos' Natural Philosophy, p. 268. 

174. The telescope is an instrument for viewing dis- 
tant objects. It appears to have been invented by Me- 
tius, a native of Holland, in 1608. The following year, 
Galileo, hearing of the new instrument, constructed one 
for himself, and was the first to make practical use of 
the invention. — Id., p. 272. 

175. Telescopes are two kinds, refracting and reflect- 
ing. In the former, which were first constructed, lenses 
are used ; in the latter, polished metallic mirrors. — Id., 
p. 272. 

176. Electricity is now regarded as a mode of force 



350 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

operating on ordinary matter, the molecules of which it 
polarizes, or arranges in a definite direction. It is con- 
vertible into the other modes of force, — heat, light, mag- 
netism, and chemical action. — Id., p. 290. 

177. Electricity is developed — 1. By friction. 2. By 
chemical action. 3. By magnetism. 4. By heat. — Id., 
p. 291. 

1. Magnetic electricity or magnetism ; 2. Statical or 
frictional electricity; and, 3. Dynamical or voltaic 
electricity. — Silliman's Principles of Physics, p. 509. 

178. A natural magnet, sometimes called a loadstone, 
is an ore of iron, known as the protoxide of iron, which 
is capable of attracting other pieces of iron to itself. — 
Wells's Natural Pliilosophy, p. 410. 

179. Bars of iron or steel which by contact with nat- 
ural magnets, or by other methods, have acquired mag- 
netic properties, are termed artificial magnets. — Id., p. 
410. 

180. 1. Every magnet has two similar poles ; like 
poles repel each other ; unlike poles attract each other. 
2. Magnetic force, like other forms of attraction and 
repulsion, varies inversely as the square of the distance. 
— Avery^s Elements of Natural Pliilosopliy, pp. 304, 305. 

181. If a magnet be broken, each piece becomes a 
magnet with two poles and an equator of its own. These 
pieces may be repeatedly subdivided and each fragment 
will be a perfect magnet. — Id., p. 305. 

182. An electro-magnet is a bar of iron surrounded 
by a coil of insulated wires carrying a current of electric- 
ity. It may be made more powerful than any perma- 
nent magnet, but loses its power as soon as the current 
ceases to flow through its coil. The fact that the mag- 
netism of this apparatus is under control adapts it to 
many important uses, such as electric bells and tele- 
graphic instruments. — Id., p. 317. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 351 

183. Although the magnetic needle is said to point 
north and south, accurate observations have shown that 
it does not point exactly north and south except in a few 
restricted positions upon the earth's surface. — Wells^s 
Natural Philosophy, p. 430. 

184. The compass is claimed to have been discovered 
by the Chinese : it was, however, known in Europe, and 
used in the Mediterranean, in the thirteenth century. 
The compasses at that time were merely pieces of load- 
stone fixed to a cork, which floated on the surface of 
water. — Id., p. 424. 

185. The identity of lightning and electricity was first 
established by Dr. Franklin, at Philadelphia, in 1752. — 
Id., p. 453. 

186. The velocity of the current varies greatly under 
different circumstances. It ranges from 13,000 miles 
a second to about 60,000 miles a second ; or from a 
velocity which would take it around the earth in two 
seconds to one that would take it twice around the earth 
in less than a second. — Elementary Philosophy, Gillet 
and Rolfe, p. 226. 

187. If two metal plates are partly immersed in a 
liquid which acts chemically more powerfully upon one 
of them than upon the other, and are placed in metallic 
communication outside of the liquid, either by direct 
contact or by means of a wire, a current of electricity 
will flow outside of the liquid from the metal least acted 
upon by the liquid when alone to the one most acted 
upon. 

When two metals are thus arranged in a liquid, and 
are in metallic communication, the one which, if alone, 
would be least acted on, is entirely protected by the 
other. The arrangement is called a voltaic cell. The 
portion of the plate least acted on, which is out of the 
liquid, is called the positive pole of the cell, and the 



352 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

corresponding part of the other plate the negative pole. 
—Id., p. 226. 

188. The voltaic battery is a combination of voltaic 
CQ\\&.—Id., pp. 230, 231. 

189. The Leyden [li-den] Jar is a glass vessel used for 
accumulating electricity. It is so called from having 
been first used in Leyden, Holland, in the year 1745. — 
Natural Philosopliy , QuacTcen'bos, p. 299. 

190. If two strips of metals which differ in their 
conducting power are soldered together at one end so 
as to form an acute angle with each other, and heat is 
applied at the place of junction, a current of electricity 
is produced, which maybe carried off by any good con- 
ductor. Antimony and bismuth exhibit this phenom- 
enon in its greatest perfection, and are generally used 
in performing the experiment. Electricity thus de- 
veloped by heat is known as Thermo-electricity. Its 
properties are the same as those of frictional electricity. 
—Id., p. 332. 

191. The induction coil is a contrivance for producing 
induced currents in a secondary coil by closing and 
opening, in rapid succession, the circuit of a current in 
the primary coil. — Avery's First Principles of Natural 
Pliilosophy, p. 229. 

192. Electrotyping is the process of depositing metals 
from their solution by electricity. It is used in copying 
medals, wood-cuts, types, etc. An impression of the 
object is taken with gutta-percha or wax. The surface 
to be copied is brushed with black-lead to render it a 
conductor. The mold is then suspended in a solution 
of copper sulphate, from the negative pole of the battery, 
and a plate of copper is hung opposite on the positive 
pole. The electric current decomposes the copper sul- 
phate ; the metal goes to the negative pole and is de- 
posited upon the mold, while the acid, passing to the 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 353 

positive pole, dissolves the copper, and preserves the 
strength of the solution. — Steele's New Physics, p. 238. 

193. Electro-plating is the process of coating with 
silver or gold by electricity. The metal is readily de- 
posited on German silver, brass, copper, or nickel silver 
(a mixture of copper, zinc, and nickel). The objects to 
be plated are thoroughly cleansed, and then hung from 
the negative pole in a solution of silver, while a jjlate of 
silver is suspended on the positive pole. In five minutes 
a ''blush" of the metal will be deposited, which con- 
ceals the baser metal and is susceptible of polish. — Id., 
pp. 238, 239. 

194. When a conductor is heated to incandescence by 
the passage of a current, we have an illustration of the 
principle of incandescent electric lighting. To prevent 
the fusion of the conductor, a ^carbon filament, about 
the size of a horse-hair, is used — carbon never having 
been melted. To prevent the combustion of the carbon 
filament, it is inclosed in a globe containing either a 
high vacuum or only some inert gas, incapable of acting 
chemically on the carbon at even the high temperature 
to which it is to be subjected. — Avery's First Principles 
of Natural PMlosopliy, p. 238. 

195. The most brilliant effect of current electricity is 
the arc lamp. This consists essentially of two pointed 
bars of hard carbon, generally copper coated, placed end 
to end in the circuit of a very powerful current. If the 
ends of the carbons be separated a short distance while 
the current is passing, the carbon points become incan- 
descent and the current will not be interrupted. When 
the carbons are thus separated, their tips glow with a 
brilliancy which exceeds that of any other light under 
human control, while the temperature of the intervening 
arc is unequaled by any other source of artificial heat. 
—Id., p. 238, 239. 

23 



354 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



QUESTIONS. 
PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 

1. Define Pedagogy. 

2. What three distinct fields of knowledge are in- 
cluded in this science ? 

3. What is Psycliology ? 

4. What are the relations between Psycliology and 
Pedagogy ? 

5. What is meant by Power ? How may the powers 
of man be divided ? 

6. How may the powers of the mind, or the immate- 
rial powers of man, be classified ? 

7. In what order do these powers act ? 

8. What is it to know an object ? What is knowl- 
edge ? 

9. How may the knowing powers, or tho powers of 
the intellect, be classified ? 

10. Give a tabular view showing the classification of 
the mental powers. 

11. How do consciousness, attention, and conception 
differ from the other powers ? 

12. What is meant by perception ? 

13. What is meant by conception ? 

14. Why are the presentative powers so called ? 

15. What are the senses ? 

16. In what two ways does the representative power 
give us concepts of absent objects ? 

17. What is memory ? 

18. What is imagination ? 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 355 

19. How does the reflective power act ? 

20. By what other names is the reflective power known ? 

21. Define comparison. 

22. What is meant by abstraction ? 

23. What is a judgment ? 

24. How does the mind act in generalizing ? 

25. What is reasoning ? 

26. What is meant by the faculty of intuition ? 

27. What knowledge does the power of intuition give 
us ? 

28. What are the characteristics of these necessary 
self-evident truths ? 

29. What are the fundamental ideas received through 
this faculty ? 

30. What can be said of the importance of intuitive 
perceptions ? 

31. In review, name the four grand intellectual pow- 
ers, and give the office of each. 

32. What is meant by sensibility ? 

33. What are some of the forms in which sensibility 
is manifested ? 

34. Is conscience classed with the sensibilities by all 
authors ? 

35. Define Conscience. 

36. What is meant by the loill 9 

37. What is meant by a faculty ? 

38. What is consciousness ? 

39. Is consciousness a, faculty of the mind ? 

40. What is meant by attention ? 

41. What are the principal qualities of attention ? 

42. What is Education ? 

43. What do the immediate ends of education in- 
clude ? 

44. What does knowledge, as an end of teaching in- 
clude ? 



356 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

45. What does intellectual power, as an end of teach- 
ing, include ? 

46. What is meant by skill ? 

47. Name four fundamental principles of pedagogy. 

48. Give a table showing the natural order of devel- 
opment of the faculties of the mind. 

49. In view of the order in which the child's powers 
develop, how is the period of youth sometimes divided ? 

50. What studies taught in school are especially 
adapted to the cultivation of the perceptive faculties ? 

51. What subjects may properly be taught to children 
between the ages of four and seven years ? 

52. What subjects should be taught to children be- 
tween seven and ten years of age ? 

53. What studies belong to the period between ten 
and fourteen years ? 

54. What studies belong to the period between four- 
teen years and manhood ? 

55. When should the development of the powers of 
attention begin ? 

56. How may the power of attention be controlled ? 

57. How is a young child's attention to be secured ? 
68. When should the teaching of language begin ? 

59. What subjects are adapted to the cultivation of 
the representative faculties, memory and imagination ? 

60. When does the development of the representative 
\ Dwers naturally begin ? 

61. According to Payne, of what is memory the re- 
fa ult ? 

62. Name some things that should be observed in 
teaching as aids to the memory. 

63. In what ways do facts suggest one another by the 
I. tion of association ? 

64. When does the activity of the imagination in 
cMldren become well marked ? 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 357 

65. What may be said in regard to the cultivation of 
the imagination ? 

QQ. How may the imagination be exercised ? 

67. How may the powers of the imagination be de- 
veloped in children ? 

68. What is the law by which the imagination acts ? 

69. Name some subjects which especially cultivate the 
reasoning faculties. 

70. How many kinds or processes of reasoning are 
there ? 

71. What is inductive reasoning, or induction ? 

72. Give an example of inductive reasoning. 

73. What four distinct steps in inductive reasoning ? 

74. Describe the process of deductive reasoning. 

75. Give an example of deductive reasoning. 

76. What sciences are based on each of these forms of 
reasoning ? 

77. In what does the reasoning of children chiefly 
consist ? 

78. How should the minds of children be exercised 
for the purpose of cultivating their reasoning powers ? 

79. Why is the training of the sensibility a matter of 
importance ? 

80. Mention some things to be observed in the cultiva- 
tion of the moral faculties. 

81. How may moral duties be classified ? 

82. What subjects of knowledge aid in cultivating 
the moral and religious sentiments ? 

83. What is the use of the Will? 

84. Why should the will be trained ? 

85. What must be the aim of such training ? 

86. By what three causes is the mind controlled ? 

87. Mention some things to be observed by teachers 
as bearing upon the training of the will. 

88. What is meant by Jiabit ? 



358 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

89. What is the great advantage of thoroughness in 
education ? 

90. Name the educational principles laid down by 
Pestalozzi. 

91. What are Methods of Teaching ? 

93. Explain the difference between methods of teach- 
ing and systems of subject matter. 

93. What are some of the characteristics of a good 
method ? 

94. Explain the difference between the analytic and 
the synthetic method of teaching. 

95. Why should these two processes or methods be 
combined ? 

96. What is object-teaching, and what is its aim ? 

97. What is the yalue of object lessons ? 

98. What is a school ? 

99. Being a State institution, what should be the bus- 
iness of the school as such ? 

100. What special ability should the principal of a 
school possess ? 

101. What is the motive or object of school govern- 
ment ? 

102. What should be the personal habits of the 
teacher ? 

103. What are the requisites of good order in the 
school-room ? 

104. In what ways should the teacher give attention 
to the physical needs of pupils ? 

105. What are the good results of calisthenics in 
school ? 

106. Upon what does the ability of the teacher to con- 
trol pupils depend ? 

107. What are the advantages of a programme of 
exercises ? 

108. What are the objects of a recitation ? 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 359 

109. How many branches can be profitably studied by 
a pupil at the same time ? 

110. Give some rules to be observed in questioning a 
class. 

111. Should the teacher refer to the text-book for the 
purpose of ascertaining the correctness of pupils' answers? 

112. What plan should the teacher make for each 
recitation ? 

113. Is the offering of prizes a proper incentive to a 
healthy interest in school work ? 

114. What are some of the incentives which create the 
most healthy interest ? 

115. What is a Kindergarten ? 

116. What are some of the guiding principles in kin- 
dergarten instruction ? 

117. What questions are yet unsettled in regard to 
kindergarten instruction ? 

118. What claims have schools of manual training to 
a place in our educational system ? 



360 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



ANSWERS. 
PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 

1. Pedagogy, or Pedagogics, are names frequently ap- 
plied to the science of education. — Calkins^ Manual of 
Object Teaching, p. 344. 

This new word. Pedagogy, means the science and art 
of teaching ; but it means more than that. It means 
the taking of young children, and, by means of both 
skillful teaching and wise training, leading them up to 
worthy manhood and womanhood. — A Treatise on Ped- 
agogy, hy Edwin G. Heiuett, p. 9. 

2. (1) A knowledge of the being who is to be taught 
and trained. (2) A knowledge of those branches by the 
study of which his mental growth is to be promoted. 
(3) A knowledge of the proper methods by which the 
matter taught, and the being taught, shall be brought 
into the most healthful and fruitful relations to each 
other. — Hewetfs Pedagogy, p. 10. 

3. Psychology or Mental Science is our general knowl- 
edge of mind reduced to accurate and systematic form. 
— Sully's Psychology, p. 1. 

4. A knowledge of Psychology, or science of mind, is 
an essential part of the mental outfit of every student of 
Education. In connection with Ethics, the science of 
Duty, and with Logic, the science of the conditions un- 
der which the mind can know. Psychology furnishes a 
very large part of those truths or data upon which as a 
basis the science of Pedagogics rests. — Id., p. 1. 

5. Power is the ability to do something. The powers 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 361 

that pertain to the body, as those shown by the muscles, 
may be called material powers ; those that pertain es- 
pecially to the mind, as the power to remember, the 
power to love, etc., may be called immaterial powers. — 
Hewetfs Pedagogy, pp. 10, 11. 

6. The powers of the mind, or the immaterial powers 
of man, are very numerous, but they may all be arranged 
in three classes : 1st. Those powers by which we Tcnow, 
or the intellect. 2d. Those by which -wQfeel, or the sen- 
sibility. 3d. The power by which we choose and execute, 
or the will. — Id., pp. 11, 13. 

7. These classes of mental powers always act in the 
order here given. It is inconceivable that we should 
have feeling in regard to any matter till we know some- 
thing about it or think we do. Nor do we ever put forth 
any activity of the will till we are prompted to do it by 
some feeling. — Id., p. 13. 

8. To know an object is to be certain that it is, and 
hence knowing may be defined as the perceiving of the 
certain existence of an object. The result or product of 
an act of knowing is knowledge. — White'' s Elements of 
Pedagogy, p. 35. 

9. The group of knowing powers, or the Intellect, 
is subdivided into four groups, viz. : the Presentative 
Powers, the Kepresentative Powers, the Keflective 
Powers, and the Intuitive Power. 

Tlie presentative powers give us Tcnowledge of the out- 
side loorld through the sen.^es. 

The representative powers give us concepts of absent 
objects. 

The reflective powers show us the relations and con- 
nections of objects, or of their concepts. 

The intuitive power is the power by which we hnow 
fundamental things without being taught. — Hewetfs 
Pedagogy, p. 15. 



362 



THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



10. 



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PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 3G3 

11. The powers of consciousness, attention, and con- 
ceiotion never act separately from each other, nor from 
some one or more of the mind's faculties. These powers 
are not coordinate with the other mental powers, but 
are connected with them all. Hence in the tabulation 
given in answer to question 10, their names are written 
across, opposite a brace that includes the powers of all 
the three grand divisions. — Id., p. 33. 

12. The act of mind in becoming fully conscious of a 
sensation after attention is secured, is called perception, 
and the sensation itself is called a ^erce/j^. — Jolionnofs 
Prin, and Pract. of Teacliing, p. 35. 

13. The power of the mind to form a picture of past 
perceptions or ideal combinations is called conception, 
and the picture is called a concept. — Id., p. 45. 

14. The presentative powers, often called the percept- 
ives, seem to get their name in this way : The ancients 
used to divide the universe, for every man, into the Ego 
and the Non-ego ; the Ego is the man himself, and the 
Non-ego includes everything except himself. The pre- 
sentative powers, or the senses, present, as it were, the 
things of the Non-ego to the Ego, shut up, as he seems 
to be, in this bodily tenement. They are a kind of " intro- 
duction committee." — HewetVs Pedagogy, pp. 15, 16. 

15. The senses are usually spoken of as five in num- 
ber : sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. There is also 
a "muscular sense," and a variety of internal sensations 
connected with organic life; with these latter, however, we 
have little to do. — Landon's School Management, p. 24. 

16. The representative power gives us concepts of ab- 
sent objects in two ways, viz., either as they are or were, 
or as they might be. — Hewetfs Pedagogy, p. 18. 

17. Memory is that representative power which brings 
before the mind concepts of absent objects as they are or 
were, and recognizes them. — Id., p. 18. 



364 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

18. Imagination is that representative power •whicli 
gives us concepts of absent objects, not as they are or 
were, but as they might be. — Id., p. 19. 

19. The reflective power acts in several ways ; authors 
do not agree fully in respect to their number. We may 
safely indicate five of these ways of acting, and perhaps 
the list will not be exhausted. The five of which we 
shall speak are : Comparing, abstracting, judging, gen- 
eralizing, and reasoning. — Id., p. 21. 

20. By some authors the reflective power is called the 
understanding ; by others it is called the elaborative fac- 
ulty.— M, j9. 21. 

21. The power of the mind to distinguish likeness and 
unlikeness, either in object or in processes of thought, 
is called comparison. — JolionnoVs Prin. and Pract. of 
Teaching, p. 45. 

22. The act or process of leaving out of consideration 
one or more properties of a complex object, so as to 
attend to others ; analysis. Thus, when the mind con- 
siders the form of a tree by itself, or the color of the 
leaves as separate from their size or figure, the act is 
called abstraction. So, also, when it considers white- 
ness, softness, virtue, existence, as separate from any 
particular objects. — Webster^ s Dictionary. 

23. Judgment may be defined as the recognition of 
the identity or non-identity between any two objects pre- 
sented to the faculty of thought. As expressed in words, 
a judgment is called a proposition, or in grammatical 
nomenclature, a sentence. — Day's Elements of Logic. 

24. In generalizing, the mind acts in a direction the 
reverse of that of abstracting ; instead of taking several 
acts and drawing from them a common quality, we take 
a quality and group together the objects that possess 
it. — Hewetfs Pedagogy, p. 23. 

25. Eeasoning is a mental process by which unknown 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 365 

truths are determined, or learned, by means of those 
that are known. We see some things to be true in con- 
sequence of having seen some other things to be true. 
This mode of seeing is called reasom'w^. — Calkins' Man- 
ual of Ohject Teaching, p. 423. 

26. By the faculty of intuition is to be understood the 
power the mind has of getting knowledge in the imme- 
diate presence of the object of thought. — Sully's Psy- 
cliology, p, 142. 

27. By this power, we know certain necessary self-evi- 
dent truths, and also certain fundamental notions or 
ideas. — HeweWs Pedagogy, p. 25. 

28. All necessary, self-evident truths have these three 
characteristics : 1st, They are true everywhere, and at all 
times ; 2d, They cannot be demonstrated ; 3d, The con- 
tradictory of any one of them is manifestly absurd. — /c?., 
pp. 25, 26. 

29. Philosophers do not agree as to the number of 
fundamental ideas given to us by intuition. We may 
safely say that there are seven of them, at least ; viz.. 
Being, Time, Space, Beauty, Cause, Bight, and Per- 
sonal Identity. — Id., p. 26. 

30. Our intuitive perceptions are, of all our forms of 
intelligence, the most vivid and comprehensive. They 
give us all the elements of our subsequent knowledge, 
not in signs, or abstract representations, but immediately, 
in our self-consciousness. — Tate^s Philosophy of Educa- 
tion, p. 70. 

31. • 1. The Presentative powers gather knowledge for 
us. 

2. The Eepresentative powers treasure the knowledge 
we have gained. 

3. The Eeflective power examines this knowledge, 
and discovers its import and its value and use. 

4. The Intuitive power gives us a knowledge of the 



366 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

regulative truths and ideas that must be regarded in all 
our work. — HeiueWs Pedagogy, pp. 28, 29. 

32. By Sensibility is meant the capacity of the soul to 
exercise, or to be the subject of, emotion or feeling, as 
distinguished from the intellect or will. — Webster^ s Dic- 
tionary. 

33. Appetites and Desires, Loves, Hates, Admiration, 
and Eeverence, Conscience ? etc. — HetueWs Pedagogy, 
p 14, Scheme II. 

34. Many, holding that conscience includes a judg- 
ment of what is right or wrong, as well as a feeling in 
respect to what is right or wrong, are inclined to class it 
among the knowing faculties, or, perhaps, rather to put 
it in a class by itself. — Id., p. 31. 

35. Conscience is the feeling that prompts us to do 
Avhat we believe is right, and to avoid what we believe 
is wrong, and that commends us when we obey it, and 
condemns us when we disobey it. — Id., p. 31. 

36. The power of choosing ; the faculty or endowment 
of the soul by which it is capable of choosing ; the 
faculty of preferring or selecting one of two or more ob- 
jects. — Webster's Dictionary. 

37. A faculty is a power under the control of the 
will, having a specific work of its own to do. — Heiuetfs 
Pedagogy, p. 33. 

38. Consciousness is the recognition by the thinking 
subject of its own acts or affections. — /. H. noose's 
Methods of Teaching, p. 141. 

39. It is not a faculty, it is not under the control of 
the will, nor does it perform any specific act of itself — 
it gives cognizance of the acts performed by the facul- 
ties. (See answer to ISTo. 11.) — Heiuetfs Pedagogy, p. 34. 

40. Attention, perhaps, has less claim than almost any 
other faculty to be regarded as single. It is rather the 
coordinating and controlling force exerted by the mind 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 367 

upon its various powers, so as to bring into strongest 
action this or that particular phase of its activity. It is 
essentially a limiting and selective power, as far as 
Ireadth or extensity of mental action is concerned, and an 
augmentative power with regard to the strength or inten- 
sity of such action. — LandofCs School Management, p. 31. 

41. The principal qualities of attention seem to be 
(1) vivacity — or the power of transferring the mental 
gaze from one thing to another, (2) intensity — or the 
power of concentrating the mind wholly upon a single 
point ; and (3) continuity — or lasting power. — Id., p. 32. 

42. Education is the development of the faculties, or 
germs of power, in man, and the training of them into 
harmonious action in obedience to the laws of reason and 
morality. — Hewetfs Pedagogy, p. 40. 

Education is the development and training of the 
learner's native powers by means of instruction carried 
on through the constant and persistent agency of the 
formal educator, and depends upon the established con- 
nection between the world without and the world within 
the mind — between the objective and the subjective. — 
Payne's Lectures on Teaching, p. 31. 

43. They include (1) the developing and training of 
the powers of the intellect and the acquisition of knowl- 
edge, or intellectual education ; (2) the developing and 
training of the higher sensibility and the will, or moral 
education ; and (3) the development and training of the 
bodily powers, or physical education. — Wliite' s Elements 
of Pedagogy, p. 98. 

44. Knowledge as an end of teaching includes (1) 
original knowledge, or knowledge obtained directly by 
observation and thought ; (2) recorded knowledge,- or 
knowledge expressed or recorded in language, as in books. 
—Id., p. 98. 

45. Intellectual power as an end of teaching includes 



368 



TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



(1) the power to acquire original knowledge ; (3) the 
power to acquire recorded or expressed knowledge ; (3) 
the power to express knowledge in language ; (4) the 
power to apply or use knowledge, the last two includ- 
ing skill.— M,j9. 99. 

46. Skill is power guided by knowledge and made 
ready and facile by practice. Skill is the art phase of 
power, and includes readiness and facility in action. 
—Id., p. 99. 

47. 1. Any power under the control of the will may 
be cultivated or trained. 

2. The powers are trained in one way, and in one 
way only ; viz., by wise use. This law of work is the 
unchangeable law of progress everywhere, 

3. The wisest training will be directed to those pow- 
ers that are conspicuously active at the time. 

4. An indispensable prerequisite to any profitable 
training is careful attention to the matter in hand. — 
HeweWs Pedagogy, pp. 45, 46. 



STAGES OP 


THE INTELLECTUAL 
FACULTIES. 


THE MORAL FACULTIES. 


MENT. 


The Feelings. 


The Will. 


1st Stage. 


The Perceptive 
Faculties. 


Passive emo- 
tions and sen- 
timents. 


Instincts and pas- 
sions with little 
voluntary pow- 
er. 


2d Stage. 


The Conceptive 
or Eepresenta- 
tive Faculties. 


Sentiments, act- 
ive emotions 
and afEections. 


Instincts and 
passions with 
some volun- 
tary power. 


3d Stage. 


The Knowing Fa- 
culties or the 
Faculties of the 
Understanding. 


Affections more 
enlarged and 
active . 


Considerable 
force of will. 


4th Stage. 


The Reasoning 
Faculties. 


Benevolence or 
love. 


Freedom of 
will. 



— Tate's Philosophy of Education, p. 77. 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 369 

49. In view of the order in which the child's powers 
develop, it is the custom of some writers to divide the 
years of youth into three periods, or stages, viz.: the 
perceptive stage, the conceptive stage, and the reflective 
stage. During the first, extending from birth to the 
age of seven or eight, the senses are most active ; during 
the second, extending to fourteen or sixteen, memory 
and imagination are the controlling powers ; reflection 
appears in its strength only when the youth approaches 
maturity. — Hetuetfs Pedagogy, p. 46. 

50. The knowledge and application of facts and prin- 
ciples of direct observation, under which may be in- 
cluded object lessons, lessons on familiar natural phe- 
nomena and natural history, mental arithmetic, drawing, 
writing, speaking, meaning of terms and phrases, etc. 
These subjects specially cultivate the perceptive facul- 
ties, and the conceptive and representative faculties, 
together with simple abstraction and intuitive reason. — 
Tate's Philosophy of Education, p. 94. 

51. At the early part of this period, instruction should 
be identified with amusement, and all technical learn- 
ing should be excluded. Speaking, singing, object les- 
sons, lessons on striking natural phenomena, picture 
lessons, mental arithmetic, and the facts of Scripture 
(life of Christ, etc.) should form the chief subjects of 
instruction throughout the whole of this period. At 
the latter part of this period, writing, drawing, reading, 
common arithmetic, and geography should be taught in 
such a way as to form the basis of future instruction. — 
Id., p. 98. 

52. This period is chiefly marked by the dawn of rea- 
son and imagination, and the fuller development of the 
faculties of the understanding. During this period, the 
studies of the preceding period should be extended and 

associated with easy processes of reasoning and abstrac- 
24 



370 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tion. The abstract terms and phrases of language, arith- 
metic, geometry, natural science, and grammar should 
be taught in connection with their concrete forms. Les- 
sons on general knowledge should also be given, com- 
prehending simple stories, narratives, historical sketches, 
and descriptions of natural scenery, in prose as well as 
verse. — Id., pp. 98, 99. 

53. The subjects of instruction belonging to the fore- 
going period should be enlarged, and studied more sys- 
tematically, yet not without due regard to the Imperfect 
state of the reflective faculties. Language, mathematics, 
and the physical sciences and useful arts should be 
specially studied, not only as a means of intellectual 
culture, but also as subjects having a direct bearing on 
the business of life. — Id., p. 99. 

54. During this period, all the faculties of our nature 
attain their full development. Every subject must now 
be studied in its most technical and systematic form ; 
that is, supposing the preceding periods have been duly 
improved. Every study must now be pursued with 
earnestness, vigor and determination ; and duties, requir- 
ing strenuous and continued labor should be performed 
with cheerfulness and exactness for the sake of the end 
to be attained. During this period, the subjects of study 
should have a special bearing on the profession or busi- 
ness for which the youth is being educated. — Id., pp. 
99, 100. 

55. As no sensation can be received by the mind with- 
out attention, it will be seen that habits of systematic 
attention are among the most fundamental needs of edu- 
cation. — Johonnofs Principles and Practice of Teach- 
ing, p. 34. 

56. The power of attention may be controlled in two 
quite different ways : (1) from ivitliout, through the in- 
terest aroused by external things attracting it \ and (2) 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 371 

from within, by the action of the will compelling it. 
The first acts spontaneously, and is almost the only 
means of control in the case of young children, the will 
having as yet hardly the slightest power of government. 
The second is the result of habit and of gradual growth. 
— Landoii's School Management, p. 33. 

57. A young child's attention is to be secured by en- 
gaging his sympathy, by interesting him, by finding him 
something to do, by rendering the object to which we 
wish him to give his mind more attractive than its sur- 
roundings. — Id., p. 34. 

58. The activities of the mind are so intimately asso- 
ciated with language that it is scarcely possible to con- 
sider the two as separate. "Unless thought be accom- 
panied, at each point of its evolution, by a corresponding 
evolution of language, its further development is arrest- 
ed." The advance of ideas and language, then, must 
go on together. — Johonnofs Principles and Practice of 
Teaching, pp. 48, 49. 

59. Tlie knowledge and application of signs and sym- 
bols, to which we may refer Reading, Orthography, 
Symbolical Arithmetic, etc. These subjects chiefly cul- 
tivate the Representative faculties. — Tate's Philosophy 
of Education, p. 94. 

60. The Representative powers, in the form of Mem- 
ory and Imagination, awaken almost as soon as the Per- 
ceptives. — HewetVs Pedagogy, p. 57. 

61. Memory is the result of attention, and attention is 
the concentration of all the powers of the mind on the 
matter to be learned. The art of memory is the art of 
paying attention. — Payne's Lectures on Teaching, p. 159. 

62. 1. Carefully discriminate between important and 
unimportant facts, and fix the mind firmly upon the 
former. 2. Help is afforded by classification and ar- 
rangement. 3. Great importance should be attached to 



372 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

principles and laws. 4. Careful attention should be 
given to the logical sequence of ideas. 5. Time should 
be given to obtain clearness and exactness of idea. 6. 
Repetition. — Adapted from Landon^s School Manage- 
ment, pp. 41-54. 

63. Thoughts are associated or able to excite each 
other : 1st. If co-existent, or immediately successive in 
time ; 2d. If their objects are conterminous, or adjoin- 
ing in space ; 3d. If they hold the dependence to each 
other of cause and effect, or of mean and end, or of 
whole and part ; 4th. If they stand in a relation either 
of contrast or of similarity ; 5th. If they are operations 
of the same power or of different powers conversant 
about the same object ; 6th. If their objects are the sign 
and the thing signified ; or, 7th. Even if their objects 
are accidentally denoted by the same sound. — (Sir Wil- 
liam Hamilton. ) WicJcersham'' s Methods of Instruction, 
pp. 49, 50. 

64. Although the infant shows the germ of imagina- 
tion under the form of anticipating what is new, it is 
not till language is mastered that its activity becomes 
well marked. — Sully's Psychology, p. 228. 

65. There is no faculty of the mind which requires 
more careful cultivation than that of the imagination. 
When properly regulated and directed, it may be made to 
contribute to the development of all that is noble and 
estimable in our nature. It forms an essential element 
in inventive genius. — Tate^s Philosophy of Education, 
pp. 247, 248. 

66. The imagination is exercised: (1.) By fictitious 
narratives ; (2.) By compositions of the poet and orator, 
addressed to the passions ; (3. ) By sallies of wit and hu- 
mor ; (4.) By works of art addressed to the sense of the 
beautiful. — Id., p. 249. 

67. Higher than the mere acquisition of knowledge, 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 373 

geography is the very best means for developing the pow- 
ers of the imagination. — Parher^s Talks on Teaching, p. 
127. 

Pictures serve a very useful purpose in the training of 
the imagination, whether used as lesson illustrations or 
as occurring in books. — Landon, p. 87. 

Fables and simple tales are amongst the best means of 
cultivating the imagination in children. The sentiment 
of the beautiful, in children, should be cultivated by 
drawing and music. — Tate, pp. 251, 254. 

68. All we know of the unseen must be known by the 
mental power we call imagination. The law by which 
the imagination acts is very plain. Imagination is that 
power of the mind which combines and arranges, with 
more or less symmetry and proportion, that which pri- 
marily comes into the mind through the senses. Every- 
thing imagined is made up of parts already in the mind 
when the particular act of the imagination takes place. 
Nest to the direct action of the senses, imagination is the 
most important, in its length, breadth, and depth, of all 
the mental powers. — ParTcer's Talks on Teaching, pp. 
126, 127. 

69. The knowledge of general laws and abstract rela- 
tions, to which we may refer natural and exjierimental 
philosophy, physical geography, arithmetic, algebra, 
geometry, grammar, etc. These subjects especially cul- 
tivate the reasoning faculties. — Tate's Philosophy of 
Education, p. 94. 

70. There are two kinds of processes of reasoning ; to 
wit, (1) the reasoning from particular facts to a general 
fact, called induction ; and (2) the reasoning from a gen- 
eral fact to particular facts, called deduction. — White's 
Elements of Pedagogy, p. 70. 

71. Induction is that operation of mind by which we 
infer that what we know to be true in a particular case 



374 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

or cases, will be true in all cases which resemble the for- 
mer in certain assignable respects. — Mill's System of 
Logic, Booh III., Chap. 2. 

72. The following is a specimen of Inductive reason- 
ing : 

It is, absurd to choose by lot a musician, architect, 
pilot, or physician. 

It is, therefore, absurd to choose by lot an officer in 
whom skill is needed. — Fotvler's Logical Forms. {See 
Gram. j-j. 504.) 

73. There may be said to be four distinct steps in in- 
ductive reasoning : 1st. Preliminary observation. 2d. 
The making of hypotheses. 3d. Deductive reasoning, 
4th. Verification. — W. S. Jevons' Logic {Science Prim- 
er, p. 79). 

74. The process of deduction is the reverse of that 
of induction. It commences with axioms, or general 
truths arrived at by induction, or any admitted forms of 
truth, and reasons from these to a number of more par- 
ticularized or detailed truths. — Lando?i's School Man- 
agement, p. 100. 

75. The following is an example of deductive reason- 
ing : 

All mushrooms are good to eat ; This fungus is a 
mushroom ; Therefore, this fungus is good to eat. — 
Jevons' Logic {See Science Primer, p. 12). 

76. The mathematical and metaphysical sciences are 
founded on deduction, the physical sciences rest on in- 
duction. — Fleming's Vocabulary of Philosophy, p. 127. 

77. The reasoning of children consists chiefly in mak- 
ing simple deductions or inferences from palpable facts, 
or from the comparison of two objects, one or both be- 
ing present. In this concrete form, reasoning is exer- 
cised by children from five to ten years of age. — Calkins' 
Manual of Object Teaching, pp. 426, 427. 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 375 

78. The minds of children should be first exercised in 
easy processes of reasoning, adapted to their state of in- 
tellectual development. Their reason should be first ex- 
ercised in the discernment of the relations, connections, 
tendencies, and analogies of familiar facts. — Tate's PMl- 
osophy of Education, p. 256. 

79. Passing to the training of the Sensibility, we say 
that the teacher's success or failure in the most valuable 
part of his work will be largely determined by his power 
or weakness in this field. It is through the Sensibility 
that motives to action are fnrnished and character is 
formed. — HeweWs Pedagogy, p. 62. 

80. 1. All moral training should be based upon reli- 
gion. 2. The teacher should, above all things, cultivate 
the sentiments of veneration and faith. 3. Teachers 
should constantly cultivate the benevolent affections 
of children. 4. The benevolent affections, as well as 
the other moral faculties, should be cultivated so as to 
become habits of action. 5. The teacher must educate 
the moral faculties of his pupils by his example as well 
as by his precept. — Tate's Philosophy of Education, pp. 
288-292. 

81. Moral duties may be classed under three heads, 
viz. : (1) Our duty to ourselves ; (2) our duty to our 
neighbor; and (3) our duty to our God. — Id., p. 295. 

82. General reading, poetry, music, religion, etc. — 
Id., p. 295. 

83. Will gives decision of character. It enables its 
possessor to achieve great results. It gives power over 
others, and thus makes a man great in the estimation of 
his fellows. Men are obeyed or resisted, respected or 
despised, in proportion to their power of will and the 
manner of exercising it. — Calkins^ Manual of Object 
Teaching, p. 445. 

84. To give bodily vigor and intellectual ability. 



376 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

without any moral foundation to the character, is to 
give education not only wanting in completeness but in 
balance — an education which may be miscliievous both 
to the individual and to society. — Landon' s School Man- 
agement, p. 20. 

85. It must be trained in such a way as to act in re- 
sponse to the best motives, to lead to ready self-control of 
the intellect and the conduct, to heighten moral courage 
in the attack of difficulties, to give steadiness of purpose in 
spite of opposing forces and temptations, and to prevent 
that vacillating weakness which allows the individual to 
be swayed hither and thither by every impulse which 
arises. — Id., p. 335. 

86. The mind is controlled by three causes. First, 
by the will of another. Second, by one's own desire, 
whether right or wrong. Third, by reason ; i. e., that a 
course of action is knowingly right, and therefore must 
be taken. — Parher^s Talks on Teaching, p. 168. 

87. 1. The acts of the child must be controlled by the 
teacher until the child's reason, or knowledge of right, 
makes such control unnecessary. 2. As soon as the child 
can act from the dictates of his own reason, the will of 
the teacher should be withdrawn. That universal law 
that we learn to do by doing, should be thoroughly ob- 
served here. 3. Definite instruction should be given to 
pupils in what constitutes right motives to action. 4. 
Pupils should be taught to restrain selfish tendencies, 
and to check the manifestation of strong passion, bitter- 
ness, or ill-temper. 5. Kindness, patience, and perse- 
verance are essential to success. — Ed. 

88. Habit is the tendency to assume or to be what has 
once been, and is consequently one of the most powerful 
agencies in education. Habits are the results of educa- 
tional processes acting with this tendency, and include 
all those actions or states which, from their being prac- 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOCY. 377 

ticed frequently, have become so much a part of the in- 
dividual as to be often performed unconsciously. — GiWs 
School Management, p. 46. 

89. Tlie struggle of development consists in acquiring 
knowledge and skill so thoroughly that it can sink into 
the automatic, thus leaving the mind free for new attain- 
ments. — Parker's Talks on Teaching, p. 159. 

90. 1. Activity is the law of childhood. Accustom 
the child to do — educate the hand. 

2. Cultivate the faculties in their natural order — first 
form the mind, then furnish it. 

3. Begin with the senses, and never tell a child what 
he can discover for himself. 

4. Keduce every subject to its elements — one difficulty 
at a time is enough for a child. 

5. Proceed step by step. Be thorough. The measure 
of information is not what the teacher can give, but 
what the child can receive. 

6. Let every lesson have a point, either immediate or 
remote. 

7. Develop the idea — then give the term — cultivate 
language. 

8. Proceed from the known to the unknown — from 
the particular to the general — from the concrete to the 
abstract — from the simple to the more diflScult. 

9. First synthesis, then analysis — not the order of the 
subject, but the order of nature. — Sheldoti's Elementary 
Instruction, pp. 14, 15. 

91. Methods of teaching are principles of adapting 
subject-matter to the capacities and powers of the pupil. 
— noose's Methods of Teaching, p. 85. 

92. When the teacher says that this subject-matter 
should be presented for cognizance by this or that faculty 
of the mind and in such and such quantities, according 
to the strength of those faculties, he is acting within the 



378 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

province of Methods of Teaching. But when the teacher 
says that this point or step of this subject-matter should 
succeed that or that step or point, he is acting within 
the scope of a System of subject-matter. — Id.,p. 85. 

93. A good method favors self-teaching ; it is in ac- 
cordance with nature ; it comprises analysis and synthe- 
sis ; it is both practical and comparative ; it is an in- 
strument of intellectual culture. — Payne's Lectures on 
Teaching, pp. 120-123. 

94. In the analytic method knowledge is taught by 
beginning with a whole, and proceeding to its elements 
or constituent parts ; and in the synthetic method, 
knowledge is taught by beginning with its elements or 
constituent parts, and proceeding to the whole. — Whitens 
Elements of Pedagogy, p. 138. 

95. On the one hand, Synthesis without analysis gives 
a false science; on the other hand, Analysis without syn- 
thesis gives an incomplete science. The ideal of science, 
the ideal of philosophy, can be realized only by a method 
which combines the two processes of analysis and syn- 
thesis. — Fleming'' s Vocabulary of Philosophy. {See 
Hoose's 3fethods of Teaching, p. 270.) 

96. Object-teaching is a system of training based upon 
and controlled by the fact that the beginning of real 
knowledge must come through the appropriate exercise 
of the senses. Its purpose is the development, to vigor- 
ous and healthy action, of the child's powers of getting 
and using knowledge by the means both of obtaining 
and of using it. — Calkins' Manual of Object- Teaching, 
p. 15. 

97. First. They furnish the best means known for 
the exercise of observation and the training of the per- 
ceptive powers. 

Secondly. They constitute the first steps in the un- 
folding of every science ; and especially are they indis- 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 379 

peusable in the study of natural history and the physical 
sciences generally. 

Tliirdly. They give to the mind the first ideas of or- 
derly and methodical thinking. 

Fourthly. They are potent in exciting the mind to 
activity, and in arousing that curiosity and zeal which 
lead to new discovery. 

Fifthly. They furnish the means by which laws may 
be verified and principles may be applied. — Johonnofs 
Principles and Practice of Teaching, p. 91. 

98. A school is a civil corporation established to facili- 
tate the economic interests of the state, to be attained by 
means of education. — Paper before the National Educa- 
tional Association, at Baltimore, July 10, 1876, iy J. II. 
Hoose, p. 12. 

99. Its business is to assist as being one among the 
many corporations created and fostered by the state — in 
increasing the wealth by increasing the productive power 
of the state. These ends are served when the attending 
learners are acquiring sound knowledge in the sciences 
and in the arts — when they are learning to respect au- 
thority ; when they are cherishing a proper self-respect ; 
when they are understanding their relations to their 
peers ; when they are establishing the imperative habits 
demanded by business ; when they are founding all their 
dealings upon the general principles of law, morality, 
religion. — Id., p. 21. 

100. A school, as an institution, needs as its first officer 
a mind that is characterized by at least these two points : 
A decidedly executive ability, and a well-balanced, can- 
did, judicial discrimination, with decided firmness. — Id., 
p. 22. 

101. The highest motive of school government is to 
give the child the power and necessary reason to control 
himself. The immediate and direct motive is the limi- 



380 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

tation of mental power to attention. — Parher^s Talks on 
Teaching, p. 157. 

102. "As the teacher, so is the school." It is there- 
fore requisite that teachers should possess fixed habits of 
neatness, cleanliness, and order, gentleness of manner, a 
watchful self-control, and a clieerful spirit. In speak- 
ing, let pleasant tones of the voice prevail ; then the 
words of reproof will be more impressive and effectual. — 
Teacher^ s Manual for City of Neio Yorh, 2J- H. 

103. Intelligent attention, prompt and willing obedi- 
ence, with quiet, orderly movements, are the chief requi- 
sites of good order. — Id., p. 14. 

104. No system of education and school management 
is complete which neglects to provide for due attention 
to physical training. Children should be taught how to 
sit, to stand, to move, to walk ; to abstain from the use 
of those things and to avoid doing those acts which are 
injurious to health. — Id., p. 14. 

105. The weariness of long-continued sitting is dis- 
pelled ; the nervous restlessness which so often disturbs 
the order of the school is allayed ; headaches and other 
forms of nervous ailments are diminished ; the tendency 
to distortion, incident to sitting in one position, is 
overcome. A greater amount of intellectual work is 
secured, and grace of attitude and gesture is developed. 
— Jolionnot's Principles and Practice of Teaching, p. 
209. 

106. 1. The natural strength of the teacher's mind. 

2, His force of character. 3. The interest he takes in 
his work. 4. The clearness of his conception of the sub- 
jects he desires to teach. — Hughes^ How to Secure Atten- 
tion, p. 35. 

107. Advantages of a programme : 1. It lessens the la- 
bor of teaching. 2. It makes the teaching more effective. 

3. It promotes good order. 4. It cultivates systematic 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 381 

habits. 5. It promotes the ambition of pupils. — De 
Grafts School-Boom Guide, p. 373. 

108. The objects of a recitation are : (1) To find out 
what the pupil knows about the lesson assigned. (2) 
That the pupil may receive instruction from the teacher 
and other pupils. (3) To cultivate the power of ex- 
pression and habits of accuracy and neatness. (4) To 
teach the pupil how to investigate, (5) To excite and 
stimulate a love for study. — Teachers' and Students' 
Library, p. 469. 

109. The universal experience, both in this country 
and in Europe, has settled upon the assigning of three 
studies as the course which may be pursued with the 
most profit to the student. Beading, writing, declama- 
tion, composition, music, drawing, and the like, are not 
included in the catalogue of full studies. — /. R. Sypher's 
Art of Teaching, p. 91. 

110. 1. The questions should admit of a definite an- 
swer. 2. They should be expressed in simple and con- 
cise language. 3. They should follow each other in 
logical order. 4. Questions should not suggest the an- 
swer. 5. Questions which simply require a Yes or No 
for an answer should be avoided. 6. Trivial questions 
should not be asked. 7. The answers should be, as far 
as possible, in the pupil's own language. 8. The lan- 
guage of the answer should be good language. — Adapted 
from Tate's Phil, of Ed., pip. 314, 315. 

111. A teacher, while concluding a recitation, should 
never be obliged to refer to the book or map for the 
purpose of ascertaining whether or not the pupil is cor- 
rect in his answer. The teacher should be first well 
acquainted with the answer to every question, and the 
correct pronunciation of every word in the several les- 
sons. — De Graff's School- Room Guide, p. 348. 

113. The teacher should never fail to enter his class 



382 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

well prepared, not only in regard to the object on which 
he intends to exercise his class, but upon the order in 
which the exercises are to be conducted, and upon the 
manner in which the individual pupils are to be interro- 
gated. — Id., p. 99. 

113. I am satisfied that prizes offered to a school in 
such a way that all may compete for them, and only two 
or three obtain them, will always be productive of evil 
consequences, far overbalancing any temporary or par- 
tial good that may arise from them, and therefore they 
ought not to be used as incitements in our schools. — 
Page's Theory and Practice, p. 164. 

114. (1) A desire for standing or rank, including the 
desire to excel. (2) A desire for approbation — of equals 
and superiors. (3) A desire for activity and power. 
(4) A desire for knowledge. (5) The hope of future 
good. (G) A sense of honor. (7) A sense of duty. — 
Wliitos Elements of Pedagogy, p. 321. 

115. The word Tcindergarten literally means a place 
where children are cultivated. Froebel's plan was to 
collect a number of young children, and place them in 
such conditions that their own free and sjDontaneous acts 
would, in a large measure, contribute to their full de- 
velopment. The teacher's work was simply direction. — 
JoJionnofs Principles and Practice of Teaching, p. 132. 

116. Every child is born with capacities and traits 
which are inherited from its ancestry. These traits give 
general direction to thought and conduct, but they may 
be materially changed by education. Education should 
begin at the earliest period of conscious existence. The 
education of children should be based on self-activity. 
The child must be left free to show its activities and ex- 
press its desires. Whatever gives pleasure to children 
serves to promote their development in some way. Ed- 
ucation, as much as possible, should connect every step 



PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY. 383 

of instruction with some kind of bodily activity. The 
hand should be trained. The whole nature of the child 
needs instruction and training from the very first. — Id., 
pp. 133-139. (Adapted.) 

117. Should caprice be tolerated in any phase of the 
development of childhood ? Is it wise to rationalize the 
activity of childhood as soon as it begins ? Is there not 
danger in any systematic training of the child, that his 
will power may become weakened by subordinating it to 
prescribed rules before it gets developed sufficiently ? 
Moreover, the question of too much stimulus at an early 
age is a serious one. — Id., p. 145. 

118. The end and aim of school education is to train 
a cliild to work, to work systematically, to love work, 
and to put his brains into work. Working with the 
hands is one great means of primary development. It 
is also one of the very best means of moral training. 
Manual labor is the foundation of clear thinking, sound 
imagination, and good health. At no distant date, in- 
dustrial rooms will become an indispensable part of every 
good school ; the work of the head and the skill of the 
hand, will be joined, in class-room and workshop, into 
one comprehensive method of developing harmoniously 
the powers of body, mind, and soul. — Parher's Talks on 
Teaching, pp. 1'79-1S2. (Adapted.) 



384 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE* 

GENERAL POINTS. 

Essentials on the Paet of the Teacher. 

I. The teacher must get a thorough ktiowledge of the 
subjects to he taught, — absolute mastery of them. 

How Acquired. 

1. By attending first-class Public Schools. 

2. By attending Normal Schools. 

3. By attending Training Schools. 

4. By attending Colleges and Universities. 

5. By close personal application. 

II. The teacher must attain the best modern methods, 
and seek to acquire perfection in them. 

How Acquired. 

1. By attending Normal Schools. 

2. By attending Training Classes. 

3. By attending Teachers' Institutes, 

4. By thorough study of works on teaching. 

5. By experimenting successfully. 

6. By rational experience in teaching, 

7. By continual thought, — closely watching the un- 
folding of the child's mind. 

8. By studying the history of education and experi- 
mental psychology. 

♦Through the courtesy of A. Lovell & Co., we are enabled to present to onr 
readers the loUowing admirable and suggestive chapter on School Discipline, 
taken from the latest edition of " Development Lessons." 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 385 

III. The teacher must Jove the luorh of teaching ; must 
possess an absolute fondness for it, and take an eager 
delight in it. If this love of the work is not inborn and 
God-given, it 

Cak be Acquiked. 

1. By cultivating a fondness for children. 

2. By complete familiarity with the work. 

3. By casting aside all thoughts foreign to the work. 

4. By so working that the occupation will be pleasur- 
able rather than painful. All school work should be 
pleasurable. 

IV. The teacher must create a thirst for knoiuledge, — 
a strong and eager desire on the part of the pupil to ac- 
quire learning. 

How Produced. 

Attractive means. 

1. By singing. 

2. By marching. 

3. By calisthenics. 

4. By drills in uniform movement. 

5. By drawing pictures. 

6. By illustrations. 

7. By story telling. 

8. By reading stories. 

9. By pleasant tones. 

10. By agreeable manners. 

11. By neat attire. 

12. By teaching objectively. 

13. By teaching one thing at a time. 

14. By arousing every power of the mind to its full 
activity. 

15. By presenting facts to the mind through the 

senses. 

25 



386 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

Rational means. 

1. By writing. 

2. By lucid analysis. 

3. By rational questioning. 

4. By rational teaching. 

5. By the development of clear ideas, 

6. By development of thought. 

7. By teaching things rather than words. 

8. By the development of clear and accurate percep- 
tions. 

9. By having a definite plan of work. 

10. By proceeding from the simple to the more diffi- 
cult. 

11. By requiring that things that have to be done be 
learned by doing them. 

13. By topical teaching. 

13. By developing mental power. 

\. The teacher must attain ahsolute mastery over self, 
— ready power to control and determine; a will-power 
guided hy reason. 

How Acquired. 

1. By preservation of a sound constitution. 

2. By cultivation of good habits. 

3. By cultivation of great and unselfish motives. 

4. By congenial and elevating companionship. 

5. By cultivating social and devotional instincts. 

6. By the exercise of careful and studied judgment. 

7. By admission of errors of judgment. 

8. By studying to discover our faults, and willingly 
hearing criticisms. 

Cautions. 

1. See that the will is governed by reason. 

2. Use authority only when attraction fails. 

3. Don't let the will be governed by unreason — such 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 387 

as moods, feelings, failures, disappointments, sickness, 
intemperance, etc. 

No man is free who cannot command himself. — Py- 
thagoras. 

That person is of all others the most powerful who 
has himself in his own power. — Seneca. 

The worst education which teaches self-denial and 
self-control, is better than the best which teaches every- 
thing else, and not these. — Bacon. 

SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 

Definition". — Discipline is that restraining influence 
which produces and sustains order, and prompts the 
pupil to diligent study and good conduct. 

Oedee. — Order limits energy to the work of the 
school ; that is, the best order in which the best work 
can be done. Order implies fitness of condition. 

Postulate. — True rational discipline does away with 
all need of arbitrary discipline. 

Object. — The object of school discipline is to train 
pupils to right habits of thought and action — to conduce 
to permanent well-doing. 

Results. — The result should be to teach pupils to 
govern themselves. 

Two kinds of discipline are in use to-day : the first 
ruling by love, and the second governing hj fear. In- 
stead of offering bribes and using threats, the young 
should be so influenced in their surroundings that they 
may see virtue and happiness united. Both of the 
methods — love and fear — may be artificial and tempo- 
rary. The teacher should seek from the beginning to 
form correct habits, and then there will be no occasion 
to reform bad ones. 

The child should be taught that it is its duty to do 
right, and that it should do right because it is right. 



388 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

The teacher should not procure exertion by a bribe, be- 
cause the effort is felt to be a sacrifice, and it will not 
be repeated without a like inducement. It is useless to 
drive a boy or girl to work, or cause either to work 
through fear ; the task may be done, but then there 
will be no heart in it, and the coercion will be resented. 

There is only one way which can create a new habit 
of industry capable of supplanting the old habit of in- 
dolence, and that is the awakening of pleasure in work 
for its oion sake. The teacher should make all school 
work pleasurable. Give a pupil a sense of pleasure in 
work, and idleness will be cured and the need of arbi- 
trary discipline obviated. 

If parents and teachers better understood the child's 

mind, there would be a relief of much of the drudgery 

in school disci j)line. Under the present undeveloped 

condition of our knowledge of child-nature in the family 

and in the school, we can only approximate the desired 

results. In view of this, we will specifically speak of 

some of the causes, preventives, and correctives which 

may be used in order to secure more effective discipline 

in the schools. 

L COMMUNICATION. 

A. Causes. 

1. Lack of teaching and training on the part of the 
parents. 

2. Lack of wisdom on the part of the teacher. 

B. Peeventives. 

1. By suggestion. 

2. By advice. 

3. By reproof. 

4. By making communication unpopular. 

5. By licensing communication. 

6. By busy work. 

7. By appealing to the pupil's intelligence. 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 389 

C. Correctives. 

1. Separate seat-mates. 

2. Eestraint of personal liberties. 

3. Eequest pupils to report their own offenses to the 
teacher privately. 

4. Encourage pupils to confess their faults, and for- 
give every offender who reports. 

5. Administer punishment by a written communica- 
tion. 

6. Detention after school — an extreme measure. 

IL TARDINESS. 

A. Causes. 

1. Lack of systematic family government. 

2. Thoughtlessness. 

3. Overweening sentimental indulgence on the part 
of parents. 

4. Parents' covetousness. 

5. Exacting too much of the pupil. 

6. Eequiring work unsuitable to the age of the pupil. 

7. Impartiality. 

8. Unkindness. 

9. Lack of earnestness on the part of the teacher. 

10. Lack of preparation on the part of the teacher. 

11. Lack of promptness on the part of the teacher. 

B. Preventives. 

1. By pleasant and instructive opening exercises. 

2. By a pleasant reception on entering the school. 

3. By creating a love for study. 

4. By cultivating pride in halitual promptness. 

5. By making play- grounds attractive. 

6. By introducing new plays. 

7. By taking part in the plays. 

8. By reports to parents. 



390 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

9. By visiting parents. 

10. By an exposition of tlie pernicious influence on 
the schools. 

11. By retractive power of personal example. 

13. By presentation of a written excuse from the 
parent. 

C. COEEECTIVES. 

1. Cessation of exercise when pupils enter the school. 

2. Silent reception of the pupil. 

3. Detention after school. 

4. Private admonition. 

5. Rebuke before the school. 

6. Severe reproof. 

7. Refuse admission to the pupil — a severe measure. 

Ill ABSENCE. 
A. Causes. 

1. Lack of interest on the part of the parent. 

2. Lack of interest on the part of the teacher or 
pupil. 

3. Lack of proper classification of the pupils. 

4. Lack of rational teaching. 

5. Conflict of authority. 

6. Abuse of authority. 

7. Abdication of authority. 

8. Peevishness and fretfulness of the teacher. 

9. Personal discomfort. 

10. Favoritism by the teacher. 

11. Parents' demand of child's services. 

12. Unnecessary exposure of ignorance by the teacher. 

13. Unjust accusations. . 

14. Lack of sympathy. 

15. Backwardness in studies. 

16. Improper grading. 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 391 

17. A failure to understand subjects. 

18. Neglect of private study. 

19. Teacher not recognizing the principles of mental 
development. 

20. Teacher neglecting to take child into confidence. 

21. Improper home associations. 
23. Lack of suitable garments. 

B. Pkeventives. 

1. By making school work attractive. 
3. By taking an interest in the pupil's studies and 
plays. 

3. By thorough and rational teaching. 

4. By visitation of parents. 

5. By weekly and monthly reports. 

6. By cultivating a pride in regular attendance. 

7. By uniform kindness on the part of the teacher. 

8. By proper appreciation of work. 

9. By earnestness of the teacher. 

10. By consideration in the treatment of mistakes and 
faults. 

11. By uniform cheerfulness. 

C. CORKECTIVES. 

1. Gentle rebuke. 

2. Disapprobation of the teacher. 

3. Extra study outside of school. 

4. Visitation of parents. 

5. Severe reprimand. 

6. Public rebuke. 

7. Suspension. 

8. Expulsion — a severe measure. 

IV. TRUANCY. 

A. Causes. 

1. Unpleasant home associations. 
3. Improper home training. 



392 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

3. Unsatisfactory results in school work. 

4. Severe administration. 

5. Lack of sympathy. 

B. Preventives. 

1. By making the school-room attractive. 

2. By making school work pleasant. 

3. By making all the exercises interesting. 

4. By frequent changes in the exercises. 

5. By winning to a love of knowledge. 

6. By reading, or telling short, instructive stories. 

7. By experiments in the elementary natural sciences. 

8. By private reprimand. 

9. By welcoming the prodigal on his return. 

10. By visiting pupil's home. 

11. By requesting pupil to reflect upon seriousness of 

the offense. 

12. By educating the child's conscience, so that he 

shall regret the waste of time as a sin. 

C. Correctives. 

1. Severe reproof. 

2. Inform parents. 

3. Suspension. 

4. Expulsion. 

F. QUABBELINQ AND FIQHTINa. 

A. Causes. 

1. Lack of moral cultivation. 

2. Bad associations. 

3. Uncontrollable temper. 

B. PREVE:srTIVES, 

1. By making the offence unpopular. 

2. By the utter abhorrence of the offence on the part 

of the teacher. 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 393 

3. By the disapprobation of the teacher. 

4. By the disapproval of the pupils. 

5. By enlarging upon the meanness of such acts. 

6. By persuading of sinfulness. 

7. By striving to strengthen the child's will to do 

right. 

8. By encouraging the pupil to practice self-control. 

9. By watchfulness of teacher during recesses, inter- 

missions, and dismissals. 

10. By cultivating self-respect. 

11. By exciting shame and sorrow. 

12. By cultivating a true sense of honor, 

13. By good-natured ridicule. 

C. Correctives. 

1. Separation of offenders. 

2. Deprivation of privileges. 

3. Eequire offenders to play alone. 

4. Severe reproof. 

5. Suspension. 

6. Expulsion, — extreme measure. 

VL PERSISTENT DISOBEDIENCE AND WILLFUL- 
NESS. 

A. Causes. 

1. Antagonism of parents to teacher. 

2. Antagonism of pupil to teacher. 

3. Revengefulness of teacher. 

4. Eevengefulness of pupil. 

5. Unmindfulness of the teacher on the first appear- 

ance of disobedience and willfulness. 

6. Weakness and indecision of the teacher. 

B. Preventives. 

1. By not antagonizing parents. 

2. By not ridiculing pupils. 



394 TEE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

3. By not using bitter sarcasm. 

4. By not using harsh tones. 

5. By not driving strong-willed pupils into obstinacy. 

6. By repressing the bad qualities. 

7. By needlessly giving pain to a pupil. 

8. By unnecessary exposure of ignorance, error, or 

mistakes. 

9. By using patience, and bringing to bear on the 

self-willed pupil the influence of kindness, sym- 
pathy, and reason. 

10. By impartial Judgment. 

11. By example of the teacher. 

C. Correctives. 

1. Severe reproof. 

2. Suspension from class. 

3. Suspension from school. 

4. Expulsion from school. 

VIL IMPERTINENCE AND IMPULSIVENESS. 

A. Causes. 

1. Neglect in early training. 

2. Cultivation of evil associates. 

3. Harboring revengeful feelings. 

4. Physical weakness. 

B. Preventives. 

1. By treating pupils as liuman beings. 
3. By recognizing the manhood and womanhood of 
the pupils. 

3. By being uniformly circumspect in manner and 
deportment. 

4. By refusing to listen to pupils' mutterings. 

5. By entire suspension of work. 

6. By developing the higher motives. 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 395 

7. By cultivating the power. to resist wrong. 

8. By avoiding a laugh at the expense of the pupil. 

9. By avoiding direct collision with the pupil. 

10. By watching the will of the pupil so that it does 
not gain control over his reason and. judgment. 

11. By overlooking childlike faults and not seizing 
upon every opportunity for censure. 

12. By teaching and training children, not merely 
telling them what to do. 

C. Correctives. 

1. Let the pupil suffer the result of his conduct. 

2. Severe reproof. 

3. Proper acknoAvledgment. 

4. Summary justice. 

5. Suspension of work. 

6. Suspension from school. 

7. Expulsion from school. 

VIIL UNTRUTHFULNESS. 

A, Causes. 

1. Ignorance. 

2. Thoughtlessness. 

3. Selfishness. 

4. Cowardice. 

5. Innate tendency. 

6. Self-reporting. 

B. Preventives. 

1. By regarding all pupils as truthful until tlie 
teacher has positive proof to the contrary. 

2. By encouraging full and. frank confession with a 
remission of penalties. 

3. By placing implicit confidence in pupils. 

4. By telling the pupils the effects of untruthful- 
ness ; as, 



396 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

{a) Loss of reputation. 
{i) Loss of character, 
(c) Loss of conscience. 
{d) General demoralization. 

5. By cultivating sentiments of honor and truthful- 
ness. 

6. By the example of the teacher. 

7. By the teachings of the Bible. 

8. By indication of approval when the child speaks 
the truth. 

9. By not frightening the pupil by terrible denuncia- 
tions of the anger of God against liars. 

10. By cultivating a spirit of forbearance. 

C. Correctives. 

1. Suspension of teacher's confidence. 

2. Suspension of pupils' confidence. 

3. Deprivation of school privileges. 

4. Severe reproof. 

5. Confession folloioed by acknowledgment. 

IX. TATTLING. 

A. Causes. 

1. Meanness, 

2. Jealousy. 

3. Ignorance. 

4. Selfishness. 

B. PREVEliTTIVES. 

1. By shunning impropriety. 

2. By elevating and refining. 

3. By the precepts of the "Golden Eule." 

4. By persuading of sinfulness. 

C. Correctives. 

1. Eefuse to notice it. 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 397 

2. Disapprobation of the teacher. 

3. Severe reprimand. 

X LOUD STUDY. 

A. Eemedies. 

1. Train pupils to study with closed lips. 

2. Suspend exercises until quiet is restored. 

3. Appeal to pupils' sense of politeness. 

B. Punishments. 

1. Eeproof. 

2. Show impropriety. ^ 

3. Separation of pupils. 

XL LAUGHING. 

Eemedies. 

1. By suspension of exercises. 

2. By letting pupils laugh until weary of it. 

3. Eeproof. 

Xn. QUESTIONS DURING RECITATIONS. 

Eemedies. 

1. By showing impropriety. 

2. By refusing to notice questions. 

3. By prohibiting them. 

4. Eeproof. 

XIII. NOISE. 
Eemedies. 

1. By training pupils how to lualh, to sit, and to 
move. 

2. By always admonishing them when a command is 
yiolated. 

3. By letting pupils try again, until they do it 
quietly. 

4. By quiet movements on the part of the teacher. 



398 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

XIV. WRITING NOTES. 
Eemedies. 

1. By destroying notes without reading them. 

2. By reading the notes, omitting names. 

3. By asking for the author of the note. (As a rule, 
avoid public exposure.) 

4. By private reprfmand. 

XV. LITTER ON THE FLOOR. 
Kemedies. 

1. By encouraging neatness. 

2. By carefully inspecting the floor in the presence 
of the pupil, without making any remarks. 

3. By requiring everything to be done decently, and 
in order. 

XVI. UNCLEANNESS. 
Remedies. 

1. By insisting that the pupils shall give proper at- 
tention to sanitary conditions. 

2. By permitting pupils to leave the school-room, to 
be admitted when in proper condition. 

3. By visiting parents and finding out the cause. 

4. By sending pupil home — stating cause. 

5. The neat attire of the teacher. 

6. By habitual attention to the cleanliness of the 
school-room. 

XVIL LISTLESSNES8. 
Remedies. 

1. By securing proper ventilation. 

2. By securing even temperature — 75°. 

3. By avoiding concert recitations. 

4. By avoiding the practice of ''keeping in" pupils 
at recess, or after school, for failure in lessons, or be- 
havior. 



JSCJIOOL DISCIPLINE. 399 

5. By giving adequate attention to preparatory work. 

6. By carefully inspecting the work of each pupil. 

7. By exhibiting a real interest in the welfare of the 
pupil. 

XVIIL PROFANITY. 
Peeventives. 

1. Teach the children the sinfulness of profane speak- 
ing. 

2. Train pupils to perfect purity of speech. 

GENERAL POINTS. 

1. Provide proper means for the activity of children. 

2. Train pupils not to act without weighing motives, 
feelings, or claims. 

3. Do not attempt to instill too many habits at once. 

4. Concern yourself with the general welfare of each 
pupil. 

5. Deal openly, justly, and resolutely on all occa- 
sions ; and reprove openly when the offense has been 
open. 

6. Distinguish between offenses that originate from 
ignorance, forgetfulness, or sinfulness. 

7. Lead pupils to govern themselves. 

8. Prevention is better than punishment. 

9. The prevention of evil is better than the cure. 

10. Eeform the offender. 

11. Do not make threat of punishment in advance of 
offenses. 

12. Let the child learn to be obedient by being obe- 
dient. 

13. Captivate the right-doers, and capture the wrong- 
doers. 

14. Cultivate a public opinion in school in favor of 
right. 



400 THE PRACTICAL QUESTION BOOK. 

15. Strong terms of reproof should be sparingly used, 
in order to be effective. 

16. He best uses punishment who uses it least. 

17. Bear in mind that loss of temper, however excus- 
able, is really a victory to wrong-doers. 

18. Minimum of punishment is the maximum of 
qualification. 

19. Make your punishment light, but certain as the 
rising sun. 

20. Let your government be steady, uniform, and con- 
sistent. 

21. Manifest a real sympathy for children, and an 
earnest desire for their happiness and improvement. 

22. Secure the love and respect of your pupils, and 
retain it. 

23. Let duty be above all consequences. 

24. Require the pupils to have a place for everything. 
Teacher, see that everything is in its place. 

25. Pupils should leave the seat only by the permission 
of the teacher. 

26. Pupils should always be held accountable for 
proper care of property. 

27. Pupils should be taught to give quiet and respect- 
ful attention when being addressed. 



Books for Teachers. 

The Practical Question Book. 

60CXD Questions and Answers. By Lamont Stilwell, elegantly bound in 
cloth. Price, $1.50. 

Gill's Systerns of Education. 

A history and criticism of the principles, methods, organization, and moral 
discipline advocated by eminent educationists. By John Gill, Professor of Ed- 
ucation, Normal College, Cheltenham, England. Cloth, viii. x 312 pp. Price by 
mail, $1.10; Introduction price, $1.00. 

Language Helps for Teachers. 

Supplementary LMttguage Lessons for Intermediate and Grammar Grades. 
By Sarah L. Arnold, Principal of Training School, Saratoga, N. Y. Revised 
and enlarged. Cloth, price, 50 cents. 

Gymnastics for the School Room. 

By Annie Chase. Price, 30 cents. 

How to Teach Language. 

By R. C. Metcalf, Supervisor of Schools, Boston. Handsomely bound in 
leatherette. Price, 25 cents. 

Evers' Illustrated Language Cards. 

By Adele Evers, Principal of Training School, Manchester, N. H. Set i. 
Price, 20 cents. 



Hozv to Teach Geography. 

A plan for an Elementary and Scientific Course. By Elvira Carver, 
Teacher of Geography in the Westfield Normal School. Finely printed and 
bound. Price, only 20 cents. 

Primary Reading : How to Teach It. 

Boston method ; prepared by the Supervisors of the Boston Schools. Finely 
printed on heavy paper ; attractive cover. Postpaid, 15 cents. 

Information Lessons : Natural History. 

Well printed and bound. Price, 15 cents. 

Elements of Physical Science. 

Finely printed on heavy paper. Price, 15 cents. 

Stories for Reproduction and Sight Reading. 

Twenty-two stories in the set. Price, 10 cents. 

Classic Stories for Language Lessons. 

By Mara L. Pratt, Maiden, Mass. Price, 15 cents. 

New School-Room Speaker ; No. i. 

^ Finely bound in leatherette. Price, 25 cents. 

Primary Recitations. 

Best of printing and binding. Price, 10 cents. 

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